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W II 




Class. 




5-1:^^5 



Book 



Xb 



Gopyiiglitl^''- 



COPyRlGHT DEPOSm 



" The first farmer was the first man, and all historic 
nobility rests oh possession and use of land." 

— Emerson. 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

EDITED BY 

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE 
GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 



PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING 



By R. M. WASHBURN, B.AGR., M.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF 

ANIMAL AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT; ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, 

DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI; STATE DAIRY AND 

FOOD COMMISSIONER OF MISSOURI 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. 



SECOND EDITION REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY 

By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A. 

PROF. OF ANIM.\L HUSBANDRY, ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CANADA. 

q6 illustrations. xiii-\-j6j pages. $i-75 ii^^- 

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PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY 
By harry R. lewis, B.S. 

POULTRY HUSBANDRYMAN, NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT STATION. 

j^'^o illustratio7is. xxi-\- 536 pages. $2.00 fiet. 

SECOND EDITION REVISEJ? 

PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY 

By carl W. gay, B.S.A. 

PROF. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, CHAIRMAN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SECTION, 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 

176 illustrations. xvi + JJ/ pages. $1-75 net. 

PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING 

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PROF. OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 

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PROF. OF OLERICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. 

I Q4 illustrations. xiii-\- JJQ pages. $1.75 net. 

SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED 

PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

By F. W. WOLL, Ph.D. 

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106 illustrations. xii -\- 375 pages. $1.7^ net. 

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PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING 

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PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING 

By R. M. WASHBURN 

PROF. OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 

132 illustrations. xii + 432 pages. $i-75 net. 



LippiNCOTT's Farm Manuals 

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D.. (Cornell) 

PRODUCTIVE 
DAIRYING 



BY 

R. M. WASHBURN, B.AGR., M.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF 

ANIMAL AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT; ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, 

DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI; STATE DAIRY AND 

FOOD COMMISSIONER OF MISSOURI 



131 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 



" If vain our toil, 
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil." 

Pope — Essay on Man 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






COPYRIGHT, I9I7 
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






,#/2 



Elecirotyped and printed by J. B. LippincoU Company, 
The Washinaion Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



©CU460675 



PREFACE 

This book was written for use in High Schools, Schools of 
Agi'icnltnre, Colleges of Agriculture, general courses. Rural 
Consolidated Schools and for the many studious young farmers 
who have been deprived of systematic agricultural educatiou. 

From an experience of more than thirty years in dairy work, 
covering much of the United States, the author has written, 
without haste, what he feels and knows, from innumerable ques- 
tions asked, to be what the thoughtful reader desires to know. 
Some of the finer and more technical points have been omitted. 
There is enough that is known to furnish a foundation and guide 
for good practice. 

The lists of questions following every chapter will aid the 
student in fixing in his mind the essentials of the points 
discussed. 

The chapter on common diseases was written by Dr. W. L. 
Boyd, x\ssistaut Professor of Veterinary Medicine, Urflversity 
of Minnesota, for this book. 

Acknowledgment is due and gladly made to the secretaries 
of the various bi-eed associations, various Experiment Station 
workers and business firms from whom help has been received 
and to Professor T. L. Ilaecker, Dr. Carl W. Gay and Professors 
H. II. Kildee, W. A. McKerrow, G. W. Gehrand, A. D. Wilson 
and E. O. Hanson, for assistance rendered in the nature of criti- 
cism and suggestions 

R. M. Washburn. 
Univebsity Farm, 
St. Paul, Minnesota 
February, 1917 



CONTENTS 



PART I.— THE WHY OF DAIRYING. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Human Food Production 3 

II. Soil Fertility 8 

III. Regulation of Labor 16 

PART II.— THE DAIRY BREEDS. 

IV. Early Use of Cattle 23 

V. Origin of Breeds 27 

VI. Elements of Dairy Type 31 

VII. The Breeds of Cattle 43 

VIII. Holstein-Friesian 46 

IX. Guernseys 62 

X. The Jersey 74 

XI. Ayrshires 90 

XII. The Red Polls 100 

XIII. Brow^ Swiss 108 

XIV. Shorthorn 117 

XV. Dutch Belted 123 

XVI. French -Canadian .- 127 

XVli. Milch Goats 131 

XVIII. Starting a Dairy Herd 138 

PART III.— CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY COWS. 

XIX. Dairy Herd Management 153 

XX. How Can I Get the Most From the Cows I Have? 177 

XXI. Some Features of the Dairy Barn 179 

XXII. Common Ailments of Cattle 189 

PART IV.— WINTER FEEDING. 

XXIII. Winter Feeding of Dairy Cows 225 

XXIV. Calf Raising 248 

PART v.— CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION. 

XXV. Clean Milk Production and Handling 267 

XXVI. Methods and Standards for the Production and Dis- 
tribution OF Certified Milk 278 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

PART VI.— FARM DAIRYING. 

XXVII. The Farm Mile House 293 

XXVIII. Milk and Cream Testing 303 

XXIX. Cream Separation 332 

XXX. Care and Ripening of Cream on the Farm 340 

XXXI. Dairy Butter Making 346 

XXXII. Tests Necessary in Creameries 363 

XXXIII. Farm Dairy Cheese (Gouda) 367 

XXXIV. Cottage Cheese 372 

XXXV. Ice Cream 375 

PART VII.— MARKET MILK. 

XXXVI. Market Milk 383 

XXXVII. The Adulteration op Milk 389 

XXXVIII. Kinds and Classes OF Market Milk — Methods of Selling 393 

XXXIX. Food Value of Milk 401 

XL. Government Standards of Purity for Milk and Its 

Products 409 

APPENDIX 

Composition of Feeding Stuffs 417 

Fat Estimation Table 424 

Index 427 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PIG. PAGE 

Jersey's Home Coming Frontispiece 

1. BeUe, the 213^ Year Old Cow 5 

2. May Rilma, a Guernsey Champion 6 

3. Litter Carrier, Saving Labor and Fertihty 11 

4. Concrete Bin for Preserving Manure 13 

5. "The Ideal Industry for the Home Unit." 17 

6. A Minnesota Farm Home 18 

7. A Profitless Cow, Made so by Poor Treatment 24 

8. Sons of Cows are the Motors in Pioneer Life 25 

9. Illustrating Need of Capacity in Cows 32 

10. Illustrating Dairy Temperament 34 

11. Showing Coarse Shoulders 35 

12. Showing Sharp Angular Shoulders 35 

13. Young Cow Poorly Formed 39 

14. The Points of the Cow 41 

15. Illustrating the Dual Function and Use of Cattle 44 

16. King of the Pontiacs, Holstein BuU 48 

17. Duchess Skylark Ormsby, the World's Champion Butter Cow 49 

18. Sir Beets Cornucopia Netherland. 52 

19. Pietertje Maid Ormsby, A. R. O. Cow, ^vith 7th Calf 53 

20. Holstein Bull, Paul Calona and Daughter 54 

21. May King of Linda Vista, a Champion Guernsey Bull 63 

22. Murne Cowan, World's Champion Guernsey Cow 64 

23. Robinna's Standard, a Good Guernsey Bull 65 

24. A Guernsey Young Herd 66 

25. Dairy Maid of Pinehurst, a Record Breaking Guernsey Cow 68 

26. Imported Oxford Majesty, a Champion on Both Sides of the Sea. ... 75 

27. Noble's Eminent Lad, a Champion Jersey Bull 77 

28. Sophie 19th of Hood Farm, the Champion Jersey Cow of the World. 79 

29. Financial Daisy, a Rugged Jersey Mother 81 

30. Bright Princess Jolly Girl, a prize winning Jersey 81 

31. RosaUnd of Old Basing, a Productive Jersey 84 

32. Cupid's Noble Fontaine, a Promising Jersey Heifer 85 

33. Bargenoch Gay Cavalier, Beautiful Ayrshire Champion Bull 92 

34. A Typical Modern Ayrshire Cow 93 

35. An Imported Ayrshire Bull 93 

ix 



X ILLUSTRATIONS 

36. Kilnforn Bell 3rd, a Grand Champion Ayrshire Cow. ...... o.. .... . 95 

37. Teddy's Best, typical Red Polled Bull 102 

38. Jean Du Luth Beauty, World's Champion Red Polled Cow 102 

39. My Own Boy, Imported Champion Brown Swiss Bull Ill 

40. Belle of Grattan, a Champion Brown Swiss Cow Ill 

41. My Own Baby, Prize Winnmg Brown Swiss Cow 113 

42. Milldng Shorthorn Bidl 119 

43. Imported Milking Shorthorn Cow 119 

44. Jewell, a Good Milking Shorthorn Cow 121 

45. Good Type Milking Shorthorn Cow . '. 121 

46. Knox Em All, Champion Dutch Belted Bull ' 124 

47. Julia Marlowe, Champion Dutch Belted Cow 125 

48. Tilma, a Good Type of Dutch Belted Cow 125 

49. Dennis Lord, Four Years Old, French-Canadian BuU 128 

50. Fortune 4th, d'Ottawa, a Champion French-Canadian Cow 129 

51. Imported Fanette, Champion Milch Goat of America 132 

62. Fanette, on Milking Stand 133 

53. A Well-marked Toggenberg Doe 133 

54. A Milch Goat of the Saanen Breed • 135 

55. Starlight's Excelsior of Jean Du Luth, a Promising Young Sire 141 

56. Barn and Silos. . 154 

57. Woodland Dairy Farm Barn 156 

58. Box Stall with Water Supply 161 

59. Comfort in the Cow Stable 171 

60. Convenient Drinking Fountains 175 

61. A Typical Vermont Barn 180 

62. A Substantially Built Cow Stable 181 

63. Plan of General Farm Barn . . 183 

64. Elevation of Farm Barn 185 

65. A Roomy Cow Stable 188 

66. A Fat, yet Tubercular Cow 191 

67. A Poor and Tubercular Bull 191 

68. Heifer, Thin but not Tubercular 195 

69. Cow Coming Down with Milk Fever 202 

70. Cow in Advanced Stage of Milk Fever. 202 

71. Cow Affected with Foot and Mouth Disease 207 

72. Cow Affected with Lumpy Jaw 211 

73. Showing where to Puncture for Bloat 218 

74. Illustrating the Economy of Liberal Feeding 226 

75. Art and Utility Combined 228 

76. Illustrating Relation of Food to Milk 242 

77. Silo, Clay Block 246 



ILLUSTRATIONS xi 

78. Silo, Home Made, Plaster Lined 246 

79. Silo, Crib Type 246 

80. Inexpensive Calf Stanchion 251 

81. Calf, Tender but Healthy 252 

82. Calf Stanchions 254 

83. A Group of Skim Milk Calves 254 

84. Well Developed Holstein Heifer.. 262 

85. A Well Lighted Dairy Barn 268 

86. Sanitary Milk Pails 269 

87. Well Made Southern Cow Stable 270 

88. Well Appointed Dairy Barn 271 

89. Inexpensive Yet Clean Cow House 272 

90. Milk Cooled in Air vs. Water 273 

91. Well Finished Dairy Barn 279 

92. Cows Kept Clean With Little Labor 2S0 

93. Clean Cows Ready to Give Clean Milk 282 

94. Elevation of Certified Milk House 285 

95. Plan of Certified Milk House 286 

96. Plan of Combination Dairy and Ice House 295 

97. Combination Ice, Dairy and Power House 296 

98. Method of Insulating Ice Houses 297 

99. Inexpensive Milk House 301 

100. Old Style Ice House 302 

101. Babcock Milk Tester, Farm Size 305 

102. Milk Pipettes 306 

103. Acid Measures " 307 

104. Milk Test Bottles 308 

105. Filling Milk Test Bottles 309 

106. Controlling Temperature in Hand Tester 312 

107. Composite Sample Bottles 314 

108. Cream Test Bottles 318 

109. A Cheap Milk Tester 319 

110. Milk and Cream Tests 320 

111. Reading the Fat Test 322 

112. Hand Cream Separators 333 

113. Milk Coohng Tank, Cover Off '..... 342 

114. Milk Cooling Tank, Cover in Place 343 

115. Bacteria Growth Affected by Temperature 345 

116. Farm Dairy Equipment 353 

117. Combined Churn and Butter Worker 353 

118. Inexpensive Butter Printer 354 

119. Insulated Ice House 360 

120. A cooperative Creamery 361 

121. Dairy School Students 364 



xii ILLUSTRATIONS 

122. Cheese Press, Home Made 369 

123. Ice Cream Freezer, Showing Use of Water 378 

124. Milk and Bacteria Under the Microscope 385 

125. The Lactometer 391 

126. Milk Bottles Variously Capped 394 

127. Plan of Sanitary Stable and Milk House 398 

128. Food Value of Various Grades of Milk 403 

129. Composition of Milk Solids 407 

130. Micro-photograph Milk Fat Globules 408 

131. Chart Used in Milk Campaigns 425 



PART I 

THE WHY OF DAIRYING 



PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING 

CHAPTER I 
HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION 

The history of Agriculture in civilized nations has been one 
of change from grain growing with livestock farming of a 
mediocre sort as a mere incident, to definite livestock farming 
with better animals; stock was chiefly of beef characteristics; 
and from this grew a yet more intense cultivation of the fields 
which are kept up in fertility largely by daiiy cows. The best 
dairy districts of Europe were once beef and grain-growing 
centers and our owtl eastern states fifty years ago were noted 
beef centers but are now systematically and intensively in the 
business of producing milk. 

The West that once boasted of its large herds of cattle is now 
cut up into farms of moderate size where many dairy-bred cows 
are kept and many others are used in a dairy way. It is evi- 
dent that the United States will either be a nation of balanced 
dairy farms within a few decades or be an exception to the rule. 

The question may very properly be asked, Why this direc- 
tion of affairs ? What is there inherent in the dairy type of 
animal industry that adapts itself to our more intensive con- 
ditions ? In this chapter, very briefly indeed, the chief reasons 
are set forth. 

The cow as a converter or transformer of coarse, rough 
feeds into fine grained and more valuable forms has no equal. 
Physically speaking, the sun is our great original source of 
warmth and energy. A small j^ortion of the heat which is 
poured so lavishly upon the earth each summer is captured by the 
growing plants and stored, some as grain, a little as root crops, 
but much more in such forms as grass and fodder. Only about 
forty per cent of the solar energy captured by our cultivated 
crops is in a form sufficiently fine to be used by man direct, for 

3 



4 HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION 

example, as corn and potatoes, while the remaining sixty per cent 
of the energy is in the stalk, leaf, cob, and straw. If we add 
to this amount the meadow hay and permanent pastures, it seems 
highly 2:)robable that fully seventy-five per cent of the food energy 
captured in this country, each growing season, is in such form 
that it is practically useless as food to man until converted by 
some animal into the form, of flesh, milk, or eggs. Plants get 
tlieir energy from the sun and their substance from the soil and 
air, while animals get both substance and energy from plants 
(or other animals). Man is no exception. 

Utilization of Waste Forage. — One important reason why 
livestock is, and should be, kept on most farmcs, rather than 
devoting them exclusively to the growing of grain, potatoes and 
roots of which man can eat only a part, is because of the power 
of animals to consume and work over a great quantity of com- 
mon pasture grass, low land hay, com stover, and some straw. 
They consume the coarser by-products formed in the making of 
human food, for example, bran and shorts, or in the making of 
some other commercial article. Where linseed oil is made for 
painting purposes there is left linseed oil meal, and where cot- 
tonseed oil is made there is left cottonseed meal. Botli are 
highly nutritious as stock feed. These substances may be fed 
to produce beef, milk (Fig. 1), mutton, or, to some extent, 
pork. The hog has wonderful powers of flesh formation, in 
fact, will produce more flesh for the quantity of feed consumed 
than any other kno^\ai animal, but his power to consume coarse 
stuff is limited. The sheep is a highly valuable animal and 
should be kept in greater numbers than at present, but its 
peculiarities prevent it being kept in such numbers as adequately 
to consume any large portion of the coarse feeds grown on 
American farms. So, at least for the present and probably 
for many years to come, the consumption and conversion of 
the bulk of the coarse feeds of our farms must be done mostly 
by cattle. 

The Cow vs. the Steer. — As a food producer, or, more 
strictly speaking, energy transformer and conserver, the cow, 
according to Haecker of Minnesota, returns in her product 



THE COW VS. THE STEER 5 

twenty-nine jier cent of what she consnines, while the flesh- 
forming animal, the steer, and in all likelihood the fattening 
cow as well, retains as flesh scarcely fourteen per cent. That is 
to say, that for every 100 units of digestible feed consumed by 
the normal cow, 29 will be recovered in the milk and 71 lost in 
the process of transforming, while for every 100 units fed to a 
steer but 14 will be returned to man as edible flesh and SQ will 
be lost. 




Fig. 1. — Belle — twenty-two and one-half year old Holstein cow still yielding 40 pounds 
milk per day. She has had twenty-one strong calves. She had strong twins at the age of 
21 years. During this period she has produced about 200,000 pounds milk, containing fully 
25,000 pounds of solid food. She has been fed on corn silage, clover hay, roots, corn, oats 
and oil meal. Property Washburn Children's Home, Minneapolis, Minn. Photo by the 
author. 

A cow that yields 6000 pounds of 5 per cent milk in one 
year will yield 900 pounds of food solids or 2.46 pounds per day, 
which is as much as can be expected in gross gain, bone, blood, 
water in tissue, and all, in the steer. A cow that produces 
12,000 pounds of milk testing about 3.25 per cent fat and about 
12 per cent total solids will produce 14-10 pounds of food, or 
nearly 4.0 pounds per day. 

If comparison be made with one of the modern high-produc- 
ing Holsteins such, for instance, as Lady Oak Fobes De Kol of 
the Minnesota Station, we find, as pointed out by Professor 
Haecker, that the 22,063.5 pounds of milk that she yielded in 



6 



HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION 



one year contained the food equivalent of five steers weighing 
1100 each, and that everj three days she yielded food equivalent 
to a veal calf weighing 175 pounds. If comparison be made 
with the product of the noted Guernsey cow, May Kihna 
(Fig. 2), we find that the food contained in her milk for her hest 
year equalled that in thirty steers weighing 500 pounds each or 
five steers weighing 1500 pounds each. 

The world's champion cow of all breeds in butter production 
in a year, viz., Duchess Skylark Ormsby, in yielding 27,761.7 
pounds of milk, testing 4.34: per cent fat and about 13.25 per 
cent total solids, produced 367S.4 pounds of solids. Computing 




Fig. 2. — May J 



: li ,ip Ml j '. I liat produrcd (he food equivalent to five 1500 
pound steers iu one year. Photo by J. F. Kellej'. 



this on the basis of the total starch equivalent (fat by 2.25, plus 
protein, plus carbohydrate) we find that each 100 pounds of 
milk equalled 18.65 pounds of starch or, better, wheat flour, 
and that the total " wheat flour " value of the milk solids was 
5177.5 pounds or more than 21/2 tons. At a yield of 15 bushels 
of wheat to the acre, more than S acres would be required to 



QUESTIONS 7 

produce an equivalent amount of human food in the form of 
flour. And all this the cow did by working over hay, com 
silage and various rough or by-product grains. 

From the above brief discussion it will readily be seen why 
it is that in densely populated sections of tlie world, where the 
demand for food is great, and labor cheap, milk production has 
become of first importance. Dairying is an intensive form of 
agriculture, requiring more labor, yet recompensing for it if 
rightly done. 

QUESTIONS 

1. From what do plants obtain the heat that is stored in them? 

2. In what forms do we handle this energy? 

3. What per cent of field grain crops is edible by man ? 

4. How may man eat hay, grass, and silage? 

5. How is an animal a transformer of solar energy? 
G. Xame the domesticated food animals. 

7. Which one will return to man the largest percentage of the amount 

consumed ? 

8. How many times more efficient as a food producer is a cow tlian a steer? 

9. What is meant by "starch value" of milk? 

10. Compare the average cow of your herd with an average yield of wheat 
or corn. 



CHAPTER II 

SOIL FERTILITY 

As the dairy industry is so closely related to the maintenance 
of soil fertility, the dairy farmer is bound to consider this as no 
small element for consideration in the profits from the dairy. 

SOIL FERTILITY 

Fertilizing Value of Plant and Animal Products. — As is 
well known, every plant which grows from the ground absorbs 
and appropriates to itself portions of the soil in which it grew. 
The quantity and the proportions of the ingredients vary con- 
siderably with the nature of the plants. Of the eighty odd 
chemical elements known, only ten to eleven seem to be abso- 
lutely essential to plant life. Of these only three are present 
in such small amounts, and used in such large amounts as to 
create a keen necessity that their presence be assured. These 
three are: nitrogen (measured as nitrogen, Is), j)hosphorus 
(measured as phosphoric acid, P2O5), and potassium (measured 
as potash, KoO). Many soils are so lacking in one or more of 
these essential substances that they must be provided in some 
artificial way. This condition has brought into existence firms 
dealing in commercial fertilizers. Immense quantities are regu- 
larly sold in this country, especially in the eastern and southern 
states. The three constituents thus marketed are nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash, in varying forms and with varying 
values. Since farm crops all contain more or less of these sub- 
stances they have a fertilizing value usually measured by their 
composition and the market price of these three essential con- 
stituents. Prices are slowly increasing. Readily available 
nitrogen is now worth about 20 cents a pound ; phosphoric acid 
and potash each about 5 cents a pound. Below is given a table 
showing the amount of these three elements contained in 1000 
8 



VALUE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 



9 



pounds of various plant and animal products. The last column 
to the right shows the fertilizing value per ton when the above 
prices are applied. 



Fertilizing Constituents in 1000 Pounds of 
Animal Products 

Phosphoric 

Feeding Stuffs Nitrogen Acid 

J^bs. Lbs. 

Wheat straw 4.3 1.3 

Oat straw 6.5 2.2 

Timothy hay 10.8 3.5 

Clover hay 20.9 4.3 

Corn 14.8 6.1 

Oats 18.1 7.7 

Wheat 17,3 9.6 

Rye 16.2 8.1 

Wheat bran . 25.6 29.2' 

Oil meal n. p 60.0 17.4 

Cottonseed meal 71.4 30.9 

Meat scrap 76.3 81.1 

ykim milk 5.0 3.5 

Whole milk 5.8 1.9 

Butter 1.2 , 0.4 



Various Plant and 



Potash 

Lbs. 

7.4 

12.2 

13.4 

20.8 

3.7 

5.7 

3.5 

5.2 

15.7 

13.4 

18.2 

2.0 

1.7 
0.4 



Fertilizing 
Value per Ton 

$2.59 

4.04 

6.00 
10.87 

6.90 

8.58 

8.23 

7.81 
14.73 
27.08 
33.47 
38.63 

2.55 

2.68 

0.56 



From this table we learn that every ton of timothy hay sold 
from the fai-m removes about $G.OO off the farm, just as truly 
as though so much soil were shovelled into the river ; and that 
every bushel of wheat sold carries away about 25 cents' worth 
of the farm. Studying the table more fully we learn that for 
every dollar's worth of soil fertility sold in wheat there is re- 
ceived in return scarcely $3.50; for every dollar's worth sold 
in timothy hay from $2.00 to $3.00; for every dollar's worth 
of fertility in average whole milk at $1.75 per hundred $13.00 
are received. While $15.00 are recovered for every one of 
fertility lost in the sale of beef, the great surprise comes in the 
matter of blitter, where $10.71 are received for every one dollar's 
worth of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash sold (butter at 
30 cents per pound). This remarkable showing in the case of 



10 SOIL FERTILITY 

butter is due to the fact that it is made almost wholly of the 
three elements, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are so 
common as to have no commercial value. 

Butter Made of " Wind and Water."_CheniicaIly speak- 
ing, butter is made of those same elements which go to form 
water and the carbon dioxide of air. Having no fertilizing 
value the sale of butter does not impoverish tlie soil. Though a 
highly nutritious food to the consumer, it does not rob the pro- 
ducer. This explains why it is that individual farmers, neigh- 
borhoods, or states engaged systematically in the production of 
butter are, in the long run, prosperous, compared with those 
who regularly sap their soil to derive their income from the 
sale of grain or whole milk. Butter may be said to be composed 
of "■ wind, water and work." 

The value of manure has been known since antiquity. Ad- 
monitions to fertilize and cultivate are contained in the earliest 
writings. Manure has three values: A. Chemical, measured by 
tlie amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash contained 
in it. These arc a direct food to the next crop as would be the 
same ingredients introduced in other forms. B. Physical. 
Manure contains fibrous materials which, rotting, yield humus 
and looseu the soil. This open condition j^ermits water to 
enter more readily, yet to drain more promptly: also allows air 
freer access. Aside from the purely chemical aspect manure 
improves the soil by a change in its physical character. C. Bac- 
terial. Countless billions of bacteria in the manure aid in its 
decomposition,, while rotting acids are liberated which dis- 
solve portions of the soil which had, heretofore, been locked 
securely i] i unavailable forms. 

Althorgh the bacterial and physical properties are clearly 
known to have value, they are difficult of determination. Or- 
dinarily, therefore, the fertilizing value of manure is indicated 
by the amount of the chemical substances carried and figured 
only one-half as valuable as would be a like amount of the three 
elements In a form more readily or quickly available. 



COMPOSITION OF MANURE 



11 



The amount of manure produced bj cattle, horses and other 
animals varies in amount with the liberality of the feeding, and 
in chemical constituents with the character of the feeds fed 
(Fig. 3). The approximate quantities of solid and liquid 
excrement are shown in the table below. 




Fig. 3. — Saving labor and fertility on a well-appointed farm. (Photo loaned by James 
Manufacturing Co., Ft. Atkinson, Wis.) 



The Daily Amount and Composition of Liquid and Solid Excrement 
Voided hy Mature Animals ^ 

Animal Solid excrement 

Lhs. 

Horses 35.5 

Cattle 52.0 

Sheep 2.3 

Hogs 6.0 



Urine 


Tota 


Lbs. 


Lhs. 


8.0 


43.5 


19.4 


71.4 


1.5 


3.8 


3.3 


9.3 



Though these figures are only roughly approximated they 
^Ohio Agri. Exp. Sta. Bui. 246, p. 726, 1912. 



12 SOIL FERTILITY 

may serve some useful purpose in estimating the value of the 
total products derived from animals. 

The Composition of Manure. — The amount of nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash in the voidings of farm animals 
depends largely on the quantities of these three suhstances present 
in the food consumed. The following tahle indicates as nearly 
as can be stated the average composition of the solid and liquid 
voidings of the four principal farm animals : 

Fertilizing Constituents in 1000 Pounds of Fresh Excrement 
of Farm Animals " 

In Solid Voidings 

Animal Water Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Alkalies 

Lhs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Horse 700 4.95 2.99 2.40 

Cattle 840 .3.24 2.07 1.49 

Swine 800 0.0 4.60 . 4.44 

^ Sheep 580 0.50 4.60 2.28 







In 


LTrine 










Animal 


Water 




Nitrogen 


Ph 


osphoric 


Acid 


Alkalies 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Horses 


890 




12.0 








14.9 


Cattle 


920 




9.5 
3.0 




.2'S 
1.27 




9.5 


Swine 


975 


10.0 


Sheep 


865 




10.8 




3.0 




21.1 



The alkalies include potash, lime, etc. 

The value of manure per ton has been a subject of some 
discussion and naturally varies with the dryness of the manure 
(Fig. 4), the feeds previously fed, the degree of decomposition, 
and of leaching of the manure. A ton of well rotted manure is 
worth more than a ton of the green stuff, but one and a half 
to two tons of the green would be required to produce one of the 
rotted. Based upon the chemical ingredients only, taking the 
manure in its ordinary condition as removed from stables the 
following table will indicate fairly closely the value per ton : 

=* Based on Table II. 



VALUE OF MANURE PER YEAR 

Value of Manure Per Ton Including Litter^ 
Amount in One Ton 

Source of Manure Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash Value 

Horse 13.90 4.97 15.27 $3.78 

Cattle 11.40 4.44 12.48 3.12 

Sheep 28.78 10.26 24.24 7.48 

Hog 10.00 15.34 6.58 3.10 



13 




Fig. 4. — Manure should be preserved in a concrete bin where impossible to haul directly 

to the field. 

While the farmers in many sections of this country would 
'hesitate long before they would pay $3.78 per ton for horse- 
stable manure, the market gardeners about our eastern cities are 
paying about that amount regularly. So keen is the demand 
that many full train loads of manure are being regularly shipped 
out of our eastern cities for sale to farmers at from $2.30 to $2.50 
per ton. This price does not include the freight or the cost of 
hauling and composting on the farm. 

The Value of Manure Per Year. — Takinsr the ordinary rate 



3 Oliio Agri. Exp. Sta. Bui. 246, p. 726, 1912. 



14 



SOIL FERTILITY 



of manure production as a basis and the present selling price of 
the chemical constituents, we have the table as follows : 

Weight and Value of Solid aSd Liquid Excrement and of Nitrogen, Phos- 
phoric Acid and Potash Contained Therein. Per Year Animal.* 

Elements contained 



Horse 



Cattle 



Sheep 



Hogs 





Excre- 
ment 

pounds 


Nitrogen, 
pounds 


N 

value 


Phosphoric acid 
P2O5 

pounds value 


Potash, 

pounds 


K2O 

value 


Total 
value 


e.... Solid 
Liquid 
Total 


12,957 

2,920 

15,877 


64.14 
35.04 
99.18 


$12.83 

7.01 

19.84 


38.70 
3S.76 


$1.94 
1^94 


31.10 
43.45 
74.55 


$1.56 
2.17 
3.73 


$16.33 

9.18 

25.51 


le.... Solid 
Liquid 
Total 


18,980 

7,081 

26,061 


61.50 

67.27 

128.77 


12.30 
13.45 
25.75 


39.30 

1.73 

41.03 


1.97 
0.09 
2.06 


28.25 
67.13 
95.38 


1.41 
3.36 
4.77 


15.68 
16.90 
32.58 


p.... Solid 
Liquid 
Total 


821 

546 

1,367 


5.34 

9.20 

14.54 


1.07 
1.84 
2.91 


3.77 
0.16 
3.93 


0.19 
0.01 
0.20 


1.89 
11.57 
13.46 


.09 

.58 
.67 


1.35 
2.43 
3.78 


; Solid 

liquid 
Total 


2,190 
1,205 
3,395 


13.14 

3.62 

16.76 


2.63 

.72 

3.35 


10.07 

1.52 

11.59 


0.50 
0.08 
0.58 


9.72 
12.00 
21.72 


0.49 
0.60 
1,09 


3.62 
1.40 
5.01 



In the last column we learn that the average horse, well fed, 
will void in a year both liquid and solid manure to the value, 
of above $25.51 ; that the cow voids about $32.58- worth. These 
figures seem very high and are much higher than most farmers 
would be able to recover because much manure is dropped byi 
the roadside or on the hillside j)asture and washed away. The 
urine, so rich in nitrogen, is often largely wasted about the 
farm. Another loss probably as great as all others is the leach- 
ing, and, in the case of the horse manure, heating in piles. If, 
therefore, only a half or even a third, of the total amount cal- 
culated were to be regularly saved the amount still would be an 
item highly well worth considering, especially when we remember 
that aside from its chemical, tliere are the physical and bacterial 
values. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What three elements of the soil are most likely to require replacing 

artificially? What would you consider as the fourth element? 

2. What are they worth per pound? * 

3. What would a ton of clover hay be worth as manure? A ton of timothy? 

4. What substance regularly sold from the farm brings in the most money 

for the soil fertility that is lost? 

5. Explain in what sense butter is made of " wind and water." 



'Ohio Agri. Exp. Sta. Bui. 246, p. 726, 1912. 



QUESTIONS 15 

6. What three values has manure? 

7. How many pounds of manure will a cow make in twenty-four hours? 

8. Which one of the three fertilizing elements is most valuahle per pound? 

9. Which is richer in this element, the solid or the liquid voidings? 

10. Wliat is a fair value of cow manure per ton? 

11. How many dollars' worth of manure will a cow make in one year? How 

much may be saved? 

12. How may straw be made back into soil to best advantage? 

13. Describe ways in which manures are wasted where you have observed 

them. 

14. Tell how manure is best saved for farm use, and give your observations 

of good methods. 



CHAPTER III 

REGULATION OF LABOR 

Dairy farming lias a number of advantages over other types 
of farming as regards the fann labor problem. In the para- 
graphs of this chapter are considered the several ways in which 
dairying is related to the farm labor problem, which is so 
often a difficult one. 

Dairy Products Valuable Per Pound. — Any farmer located 
some distance from market should consider carefully the value 
of his commodity when measured in terms of tlie load to be 
carried or drawn to town. Thus, while common wild hay is 
worth from $6 to $10 per ton, wheat or oats from $25 to $30 
per ton and cream from $150 to $200 per ton, butter is worth 
$400 to $G00 23er ton. There are few, if any, farm crops or 
products which will return as much per pound as well made 
butter. In regions of bad roads, the production of well-made 
dairy butter should be encouraged. 

Regular Income. — The regularity and frequency of the in- 
come from dairying is an argument in its favor. Current 
expenses of the home may be paid as contracted so that when 
the annual sale of field crops or livestock takes place these 
proceeds are available for the larger items, such as making 
payment on the farm, buying improved stock or machinery. 

Child Labor. — The diversified livestock farm offers the best 
place in the w^orld for the proper, profitable, employment of 
children (Fig. 5). The chicks are to be fed, the calves must 
have their little mess of milk, lambs need assistance, and cows 
wait to be milked twice a day. Much of this sort of necessary 
work may be performed by mere children, and that to their 
advantage. While in calculating the cost of keep of any class 
of animals the labor element should be included, the fact of 
the presence of these animals makes it possible for children to 
be wage earners in their own homes. Thus if the cow be charged 
16 



INDIRECT INCOMES 



17 



for the labor performed on her the system must be credited with 
an equal amount, for the money is still in the family available 
for household uses. 

Direct Incomes. — By direct income is meant the proceeds 
from the sale of the chief product of the dairy. In some sections 
whole milk is sold for use in cities ; in others, butter fat is sold 
as cream for butter-making purposes, the milk being kept on, 
or returned to the farm for feeding purposes. At present prices 




Fig. 5. — "The Ideal Industry," the one in which every little fellow helps and is 
strengthened thereby. The Dairy float during "county fair" parade by Agricultural 
College students, University of Minnesota. 

of feed, labor and produce, it is often not easy to figure a 
" profit " in dairying when direct incomes only are considered. 
Indirect Incomes. — Skim milk has a feeding value of 25 to 
75 cents per 100 pounds, but after that it has a manurial value 
equal to about three cents per 100 pounds of skim milk consumed. 
Barnyard manure has a chemical value of from $3 to $3.50 
per ton, yet possesses physical and bacterial values which aid 
materially in the production of larger crops. It is easy to 



18 



REGULATION OF LABOR 



calculate the amount and market value of feeds consumed by 
cattle, but tbe fact remains that a considerable quantity of the 
stuff eaten throughout the year could not have been sold except 
through some form of livestock and therefore had no market 
value. The labor of caring for stock naturally should be 
charged against the income from the animal, but when such work 
is performed by the growing family who must be maintained in 
any case, to charge the animal would require a crediting of the 
system by a-n equal amount. Time is more fully utilized on 




Fig. 6. — A Minnesota farm home in which a family of useful citizens was raised. 



stock farms, especially on dairy farms (Fig. 6). Mornings, 
evenings, Sundays and holidays employed productively, even 
though at a moderate rate, are sure in time to amount to a con- 
siderable item. These are part of the indirect incomes or sources 
of profit derived from the employment of livestock, and this is 
more intensely true when the cattle employed are of the dairy 
sort, thus admitting of more labor and the consumption of a 
larger projiortionate amount of coarse fodder. 

Regulation of Farm Labor. — !Most of the farms of this 



BALANCED FARMING 19 

country are so large that liired men either are, or shoukl be, 
employed for the proper cultivation of the soil. With, the in- 
crease of general education, culture and convenience of the farm 
homes it is becoming increasingly unpleasant to keep the sort 
of hired man, in most places available, in the home and at the 
table with the family. Their labor is desired, tlicir society is 
not. A cottage built on the farm at some distance from the 
main buildings, where a hired man of steady habits, and family 
anchor, may be given quarters, has been found helpful in secur- 
ing better grade men and in keeping them; but to make this 
profitable there must be ample employment at all times of the 
year. The dairy herd furnishes such employment. 

Dairying on High-priced Lands. — It is not uncommon, even 
in this country, for good land near large cities to be leased for 
$20 to $40 per acre per year for truck gardening, or other in- 
tensive purposes. In some portions of Europe, however, not- 
ably in Holland and the Channel Islands, where land is seldom 
sold, farms frequently rent at from $50 to $75 per acre per year 
to be used for milk and butter production. The sale of high 
quality butter permits high rentals to be paid. Butter is a con- 
centrated product of both labor and material. Dairying requires 
more labor than most other forms of livestock husbandry, yet 
recompenses well if done intelligently. 

Balanced Farming. — The labor problem is difficult to solve 
under the one-crop system of farming. It is natural that the 
settlers of any new country should turn their attention to a few 
crops for which the 23lace is best adapted, but to cling too long 
to the single crop has been shown to be unwise. Thus the north 
central portion of the United States suffered because her farmers 
clung too long to small-grain growing. Clover, cultivated crops 
and livestock were needed, and are now being introduced. The 
South, as a whole, has clmig too long to the single crop, cotton. 
The boll-weevil may be doing for the southern farmers what 
the chinch bug did for the northern, forcing them to abandon 
the single-crop system and adopt crop rotation and the keeping 
of livestock. While in the West an insufficient number of cattle 
is kept, there are places in the East where too many are being 



20 REGULATION OF LABOR 

maintained for the available land. To ship grain 1000 miles 
to feed is to increase the cost of the cow's ration, and handicap 
her by that nineh. In many parts of Xew England a smaller 
number of more productive cows, fed far more largely from 
the home farm, will be found preferable to the present system of 
raising roughage and buying western grain. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What prices are paid as rental on land in America? ^lention rentals 

paid in your section. 

2. Which farm product is most valuable per jjound, wheat, jjotatoes, eggs, 

or butter? 

3. Why does dairying furnish a regular income? 

4. What work about the farm is the child best adajjted to do? 

5. What is a direct income ? An indirect ? 

6. What is skim milk worth per 100 pounds? 

7. How does a dairy lierd help to regulate farm labor? 

8. Name two dangers involved in too high specialization in production. 

9. What is balanced farming? 



PART II 

THE DAIRY BREEDS 



CHAPTER IV 
EARLY USE OF CATTLE 

Cows, goats and sheep have been used by man, not only as 
flesh-producing, but also as milk-yielding animals, since a very 
early period ; just when, will probably never be known. 

If we go to one of our best records of ancient doings, the 
Bible, we find in Genesis 18:8: "And tliey took butter and milk 
. . . and they did eat." Again, in Judges 5: 25 we find: 
" He asked water and she gave him milk ; she brought forth 
butter in a lordly dish." Those two passages would indicate 
the early use of butter as, a food. That it was at least commonly 
known would be shown by the words of King David, Psalms 
55 : 21 : " The words of his mouth were smooth as butter, bu^^ 
war was in his heart." If the word here translated as butter 
did not stand for a substance well known, it is not at all likely 
that it would have been used to drive home such a thought. 

Although the word itself must have been in common use, it 
is also quite certain that the substance, whatever article of our 
diet it may have resembled, was not so common as to cease to be 
considered a luxury. This is indicated in even a later period, 
for we find in Isaiah 7 : 22, after mention has been made of cows 
and goats : '^'xVnd it shall come to pass for the abundance of milk 
that they shall give, he shall eat butter; for butter and honey 
shall every one eat that is left in the land." These four distinct 
references to butter have led some, to believe that butter, more 
or less like the modern food of that name, was known and used 
at least 4000 years ago. They certainly do shed a ray of light 
on the beffinninc of dairvinc;. 

A closer study of the matter, however, reveals a rather uncer- 
tain condition. It is agreed by all scholars that the word 
" butter," as a translation of the Hebrew word in the Old Testa- 
ment, is misleading. Gusenius in his Hebrew lexicon says of 
the word : " In no passage of the Old Testament does ' butter ' 

23 



24 



EARLY USE OF CATTLE 



seem to he meant," and lie defines it as " curdled milk " and 
" cheese." The earliest references to butter and butter making 
in Greek literature deal with its manufacture and use by the 
Scythians, and the earliest reference in Roman literature is by 
Celsus, who lived in the first half of the first century a.d. 

From the various references it seems certain that the Greeks 
and Romans used butter sparingly, if at all as a food, although 
the surrounding people in Asia and in Europe used it freely, 
especially as an ointment. Pliny speaks of it as being used for 



SJLHI^ 




Fig. 7. — A profitless cow made so (probably) by poor treatnient. 

anointing and in all i)assages in which it occurs it is spoken of 
as something fluid and to be poured out, although, according to 
Hippocrates, the Scythians made l)utter by placing milk in a 
stone jar and shaking it until the fat rose to the top. 

Our word butter comes to us from the Latin " Butyrum " 
and this in turn came from the Greek " Boutyron," which, 
according to the ISTew International Encyclopfedia, is from 
" bous," meaning cow, and " tyros," meaning cheese. From all 
the foregoing Ave may safely conclude that a rather soft cheese 



THE EVOLUTION OF THE DAIRY COW 



25 



was common and that the fat of milk was used for the purpose of 
anointing the body at an eai-lier period than it was used as a 
food, and that its place as a food is probably not much more than 
3000 years old. 

Our w^ord " dairy " seems to have come to us through the 
old and middle English, " deieris," from " dey," meaning a 
maid-servant, especially one employed about the farm or live- 
stock. We find the same in jSTorwegian '' deia " as in " bu-deia,'' 
a maid-servant in charge of livestock. 

During what is known as the " Middle Aires " and later, the 




Fig. S. — Sons of cows are the motors, the cras'i-onciies in pioniTr lifn. They will 
work where horses cannot go, live on coarse foods and become marketable beef when too 
old to labor. (Photo by G. G. Wiltse, Pine River, Minn.) 



dairy cow as an instrument in human food production was 
developed most strongly in Holland and Switzerland. 

The evolution of the dairy cow from some mediocre, early 
type animal (Fig. 7), to the present deep-bodied, capacious, 
wonderful machine, has been a more or less gradual process, but 
much more rapid during the ])ast 200 years than during any 
previous time. It cannot be thought that any man schemed to 
produce an economical dairy worker and set about to develop that 
foi-m now known as the dairy type, but rather that as individual 
cows varied slightly it was observed that some yielded more milk 



26 EARLY USE OF CATTLE 

than others and that these were naturally selected to be the 
mothers of other cows who were to work in a dairy way and thus 
gradually, almost unconsciously, the fundamental change took 
place. 

The cow, for the pioneer (Eig. 8), especially on the frontier 
in this country, has been, and is, a God-send. For nearly 300 
years in this country the home-maker with small means has, by 
the use of a few cows, been able to provide milk, meat and shoes, 
from these patient creatures. Among the stumps of the northern, 
cut-over timber country, or on the winter wheat pastures of our 
western prairies, she is still being used, not only as a provider of 
food direct for the family, but as a means of cash income as well. 

QUESTIONS 

L What is our oldest record of the use of cows for dairy purposes? 

2. From what old time word is our word "dairy" derived ? 

3. From what Greek words is our word "butter" derived? 

4. What place did the cow and the ox hold during our pioneer days? 

5. Why is not the ox more used at present? 



CHAPTER V 

ORIGIN OF BREEDS 

It is a general tnitli that an abundance of feed promotes 
quick growth of the joung and also encourages the production 
of a larger size. A condition wherein there is an abundance 
of feed through a long period of years makes for an increase in 
the size of the stock. This is undoubtedly the prime reason 
why the cattle of Holland are larger than other dairy breeds. 
The reverse is also true, scanty feed and severe w^eather retard 
growth and tend permanently to stunt the animals. Thus we 
find the cattle of our extreme northern regions naturally smaller 
and more agile than those farther south on more abundant 
pastures. 

A classification of the original primary stock, so far as can 
be determined by fossil remains and the present representatives, 
would seem to indicate that at some very eaxly period, for some 
unknown reason, the great family known as the Bos divided into 
two great divisions, one represented by the present hump-backed 
cattle of India and Egypt, known as the Bos hidicus; and the 
other represented by the present straight-backed cattle of north- 
ern Europe and known as the Bos Taurus. That they are of 
the same origin would seem to be indicated by the fact that they 
will readily cross breed and their crosses also breed. This 
division must have taken place at a very early period, however, 
because it is evident that a division of the straight-backed group 
later took place, and formed the large, fierce, long-headed beasts 
to which the name Bos Prirni genius (Keller) has been given, 
and the smaller, almost deer-like race, possessed of finer qualities, 
and known by the comparatively short, broad skull. This 
division is known as the Bos Sondaicus (Keller). The present 
breeds and strains of the domesticated cattle of the world are 
almost wholly the refined representatives of the one, the enlarged 
representatives of the other, or a mixture of the two. The 

27 



28 ORIGIN OF BREEDS 

present-day cattle of Holland, known in America as the Holstein- 
JFriesian, are probably the best present representatives of the 
large race. The Jerseys are good representatives of the smaller 
race, while the Gnernseys and most of the breeds of England 
and Scotland are doubtless mixtures of the two races. 

Our present breeds were developed by keeping a few animals 
continually in a certain valley or on a certain mountain-side 
where they were subjected to the same feed and climatic changes, 
and where they were, so far as the group was concerned, inbred. 
The whim or fashion prevailing in one community would also 
make, in time, something different from that in an adjoining 
valley, even though the original stock may have been similar or 
practically identical. Thus we find that the little country of 
Switzerland has developed two major breeds, and several minor 
ones, while the various provinces of Germany, France, Austria 
and Hungary are represented by animals similar to but slightly 
different from those in nearby regions. In this way breeds have 
started, which when rehned by skillful feeding, selection and 
breeding, have developed into the magnificent breeds of the 
present time. 

The value of having pure breeds is chiefly that the man who 
selects cattle for any particular purpose may be able to choose by 
name essentially what he wants, and then be reasonably certain 
that tlie offspring shall continue to be of the same quality, whether 
it is meat or milk that is chiefly desired. It is of primary im- 
portance, therefore, that the breeds be made to stand for some- 
thing definite, not only in the single item of economical milk or 
butter or beef production, but also in its other qualities which are 
the outward mark or proof of the breed, namely, such items as 
color, size and temperament. At present some breeders of both 
Jersey and Guernsey cattle prefer the large size with milder 
disposition, while others W'Ork for the smaller, more highly re- 
fined animals. The value of both breeds unquestionably has 
been lessened by these long-continued differences of aim on the 
part of the breeders. This seems inevitable in a large country 
and points to a reason why most of the prominent breeds have 
sprung from very small places. 



OUR COMMON STOCK 29 



A cross is an animal resulting from the mating of two ani- 
mals of different breeds. The wisdom . such depends largelj' 
upon whether the two breeds axe suliiL jutly simihir to give fair 
guarantee that the progeny will not be more or less of a mon- 
strosity. For instance, refined representatives of both the Jersey 
and the Guernsey breeds are as likely to produce an efficient dairy 
cow as could be expected from the mating of the large ang-ular 
Jersey with a refined Jersey, while the crossing of the Holstein- 
Friesian with either the Guernsey or the Jersey is a practice 
never to be recommended. The differences in their organization 
are too gTcat. Experience has shown that the progeny of such a 
cross is seldom as valuable as either parent for dairy purposes. 
The mating of extremes should be avoided. 

Grades are the result of mating a pure-bred with common 
stock of mixed and uncertain breeding. A pure-bred animal is 
usually far more prepotent than the scrub or common animal. 
The qualities of the pure-bred animal usually manifest them- 
selves in the improvement of the young towards the qualities of 
the pure parent. Thus, so far as the qualities are concernedj 
the cow resulting from the first cross may be said to be more 
than half of the blood of the pure parent. The next mating 
with a pure-bred should effect improvement, but such will not 
usually be nearly as marked. The bulk of the dairy work of 
this country must of necessity be done by grade cows for a very 
long time to come. Yet their qualities should be improved as 
rapidly as possible by grading up with a pure-bred sire and by 
better feeding and handling. 

Our common stock are the descendants of the animals 
brought over in the colonial period and soon after. The founda- 
tion stock of the country differs. In the southern states the 
animals are largely the descendants of the Jerseys and Guern- 
seys introduced to the country as Alderneys, and not kept pure. 
There is a considerable admixture also of the Shorthorn blood 
in the South and elsewhere. The early common stock of the 
northern states are very largely the descendants of the Dutch 
cattle brought over in the seventeenth century and mixed with 
Shorthorns brought over later. Recent importations and at- 



30 ORIGIN OF BREEDS 

tempts at improvement continually add fresh elements to the 
stock, but still the common cow of the middle west is largely of 
the Durham or Shorthorn characteristics, while those of I^ew 
York State partake more of the Ilolstein nature and the New 
England States more largely of the Jersey. The pure breeds 
chosen by any sections are afterwards influenced by the type 
of the common stock and that in turn by the kind of farming 
carried on during any period of time in any section. Thus we 
find a considerable increase of dairy-bred animals in the north 
central states during the past twenty years with a rapid intro- 
duction of dairy sires at the present time. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the two grand divisions of the Bos family. What characterizes 

them? 

2. Into what two classes did the cattle of Europe develop? 

3. How were breeds of cattle naturally formed? 

4. What is the value of having breeds? 

5. What items should be included in the breed characteristics? 

6. What is a cross? 

7. What is a grade? 

8. From what blood elements have the common cattle of your region 

descended ? 



CHAPTER VI 
ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE 

" The productive capacity of a cow depends more upon type 
and conformation, than upon size or breed." ^ 

It lias long been recognized with some classes of animals 
that tliose of a certain conformation or type were better adapted 
to certain work than those of other build ; thus the greyhound 
for running; the broad, massive horse for draft. But with 
cattle the efficiency of type has been slow of recognition. 

The essential economy of the dairy type cow was first clearly 
demonstrated in 1894,^ when it was sho^\^l that a " beef type " 
cow used 17.5 cents' worth of feed to produce a pound of butter 
fat, whereas a " dairy type " cow produced a pound for only 
12.1 cents, it therefore costing nearly 50 per cent more feed to 
produce butter fat with a beef type than with a daii-y type cow. 

The matter was more fully demonstrated and clearly set 
forth, however, in 1900^ for dairy cattle, while in 1905 the 
desirability of the " beef " type animal where meat making is 
the principal aim, was shown experimentally. 

The elements or factors of what is meant by dairy type may 
be summed up in a few paragraphs, as follows : 

Capacity for consuming an abundance of feed is the most 
striking single feature of a cow possessing dairy type in marked 
degree. A large barrel is necessary for the mere holding of a 
large quantity of feed and the organs necessary for its digestion. 
The importance of this feature becomes strikingly apparent 
when we consider that the feed cost of maintenance of a cow is 
practically in proportion to her live weight. That is to say, two 
cows each weighing 1000 pounds will require for their daily 
support essentially the same amount of feed whether they are 

* Haecker, T. L., Minn. Bui. No. 35. 
= Haecker, T. L., Minn. Bui. No. 67. 
^Kennedy, et. al., Iowa Bui. No. 81. 

31 



32 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE 

able to consume a quantity much greater than maintenance or 
not. This may be illustrated by Figure 9 below. 

Let the top line represent a cow of moderate feed-taking 
powers and her total consumption bj the length of the line A C 
and her feed cost of maintenance by that part of the line repre- 
sented by A B. Since A B amount is burned up daily to keep 
the animal warm and in strength it necessarily follows that only 
that quantity of feed represented by the short line B C can 
possibly be used for milk formation, whereas in the case of the 
second animal, assumed to weigh the same, therefore requiring 
approximately the same amount of feed for daily upkeep, 
namely, amount shown by line D E, being able to consume a 
quantity represented by D F and having a surplus shown by 
E F which is tvvace as great as amount B (\ must, of necessity, 

A B C 

i 



o £ r 

Fig. 0. — Illustrating need of capacity in cows. 

after supporting herself, have left in her system twice as much 
nutriment lor the formation of milk as the hrst cow. She has 
not consumed twice as much feed by any means, yet the surplus 
is twice as great. ■• 

This may be illustrated by two men. Smith earns $1 a 
day, or $6 a week. Jones earns $2 a day, or $12 a week. If it 
costs each $5 a week to live. Smith has left, at the end of the 
week, only $1, whereas Jones has $7. • Jones took in only two 
times as much as Smith, yet has seven times as much surplus 
with which to do outside work. 

The capacity of a cow is produced partially from the neces- 
sity of consuming liberal quantities of succulent roughage while 
in her young, growing condition, but to even a greater extent is 
produced after she starts milking. We must not look upon a 
cow as a machine into which we mav stuff so much feed and 



TEMPERAMENT 33 

draw out so much milk. Her organization is not of that sort. 
The cow yields milk in response to tlie impulse given bv 
motherhood. As the glands secrete milk and draw upon the 
blood and lymphatic system for material to transform into 
milk the cow's whole system, as it were, becomes hungry, and 
the cow in response to this hunger consumes liberal quantities 
of feed. Heavy consumption and the development of a large 
barrel then are eflt'ect, not cause. They are the result of the 
activity of the milk-secreting glands. 

A cow may have capacity, however, without possessing dairy 
type. A high-class beef animal must have a good middle. 
Consequently the question naturally follows, '' What will the 
animal do with the feed after she gets it ? " and this brings us 
to the second element in dairy type. 

Temperament. — A cow possessing what is known as dairy 
temperament is inclined to be alert and almost nervous, in fact, 
just the opposite of sluggish or sleepy. Dairy temperament, 
however, includes more than nervous organization, except as 
the nervous system affects the general physical condition. A 
cow with a thin neck, comparatively sharp withers, lean shoul- 
ders, prominent spine with the vertebra open, with thin thighs, 
slender tail, and refined legs, is one which will produce milk 
economically, jjrovided tlie other essentials are present (Fig. 
10). While it is possible to go so far Avith this matter of thin 
angular development that the animal will be too excitable and 
too tender to withstand ordinary conditions, it is also a fact that 
any animal which carries appreciably more flesh than necessary 
to perform her natural functions not only largely wastes the 
feed which was required to build the needless meat, but is also 
subjected to the constant expense or feed cost thereafter, of 
maintaining the heavier body (Fig. 10). 

This may be illustrated by two men. A and D are farmers 
who have equal need for house room. A builds his house for 
$3000 and uses all of it. I) builds larger, his house costing 
$4000, and he does not use all the space. D in this case has 
not only wasted the extra thousand in putting it where it can 
do no good, but will also be subjected to the constant expense 
3 



34 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE 

thereafter of maintaining in repair the nnneeded and unused 
portion. Just so with the cow. She produces nothing, she only 
transfoi-ms. If she transforms into flesh an unduly large amovint 
of feed consumed she not only has almost wasted the amount 
of feed required to produce this extra weight, but is also handi- 
capped thereafter by being compelled to support or maintain a 
live weight larger than is needed for the work being done. 

Dairy temperament suggests that lean but placid expression 
commonly found in the best dairy producers. 

Constitution — The question of the physical ability of the 
animal made up as just described to withstand the physical 
hardships of life continually arises. Any animal to be first- 
class must have constitution, but what is constitution ? If we 
answer tliis question " Constitution is the ability of any animsl 



D 



Fia. 10. — ^With equal consumption the cow that requires least for maintenance has the 
most left for production. 

to perform its life work and remain in health throughout a 
reasonably long life," then we must conclude that the angular 
build of the dairy cow does not lessen its constitution. It is a 
j^opular notion that any animal to have constitution must have 
a broad as well as deep chest. Immature students often con- 
fuse fleshiness with constitution (Fig. 11). The dairy cow 
should have a deep chest and one moderately broad at the floor 
of the chest, or in other words, there must be room in the chest 
cavity for large lungs for the purifying of a large quantity of 
blood and for a large, strong heart for the pumping of this 
large blood quantity (Fig. 12). 

Constitution includes, however, that intangible item of 
nerve. This element is best illustrated in the case of horses. 
Some thin, deep-chested horses are able to work, run or fight 
the larger, heavier horses literally to the grave. Another item 



CONSTITUTION 



35 



in this connection is that the resistance met by the blood in its 
circulation throughout the body is nearly, if not quite, as impor- 
tant as the actual pumj^ing power of the heart itself. Any 
animal when fat, is at a disadvantage in that many, or all, of 
the finer blood vessels are surrounded by a more or less compact 
mass which not only reduces the size of the blood-vessels some- 




FlG. 11. 



Fig. 12. 



Fig. 11. — Showing coarse shoulders, an undesirable point. 
Fig. 12. — Showing sharp, angular shoulders, desirable in dairy tj"pe. 

what, but also renders them less elastic, less responsive to the 
pulsations of the heart. This throws a greater burden upon the 
heart itself. Given two animals with heart power equal, one 
animal in moderate flesh or lean, blood-vessels surrounded by 
loose connective tissue, the other with blood-vessels suiTOunded 
by fat, the leaner animal would be able to work or run longest 
and would be said to possess the strongest constitution. In 



36 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE 

rating the constitution of the dairy cow, therefore, the resistance 
to the heart must he taken into consideration fully as much as 
the pumping power of the heart itself. 

Mammary Development. — Not infrequently animals are 
met which have capacity in moderate degree, and certain con- 
stitution, and still do not yield milk as abundantly as we might 
think they should. Such animals are usually deficient in the 
mammary glands, something over which man as yet has little 
control. The economical dairy cow will possess an udder with 
connective tissue elastic and flexible. The good udder will milk 
out and become very flabby. The udder which is so meaty 
that it wnll hold its form after all the milk has been withdrawn 
is seldom found on a good dairy cow. Accompanying the well- 
developed udder are found large, crooked, elastic veins running 
forward from the udder to two or more points near the region 
of the heart. These so-called '' milk veins " are filled with 
blood which has finished its work in and about the mannnary 
glands, and we reason that if a large vein is needed to carry the 
blood which has been used in the gland, that the gland itself must 
be reasonably active. Certain it is that the most powerful dairy 
producers show veining in a marked degree, not only on the 
abdomtn, but on the side of the udder as well (Fig. lU). The 
mammary system then furnishes an expression of dairy ability 
vrhich must be considered along with the matter of capacity, 
temperament and constitution. 

Femininity. — The yielding of milk is pre-eminently a func- 
tion of tlie female. To be a good cow she must'have the facial 
expression of a female, rather than a male. The bold mas- 
culine expression is seldom found upoi'' a good dairy cow. 

The triple wedge is an expression used formerly more than 
at the present time to designate the conformation or the type of 
dairy cow found to be the most efficient. Looking at tlie cow 
from her side, taking the nose as the thin edge of the wedge, we 
notice that the lines of the body draAv continually farther and 
farther apart until upon reaching the region of the udder the 
lines are fully fifty per cent farther apart than at the cliesi, thus 
forming the shape of a wedge. The second wedge form would 



THE ESCUTCHEON 37 

be noted if we could look down n})on the back of the cow. The 
thill edge of the wedge would be forward, the body of the cow 
becoming wider towards her rear until the region of the paunch 
has been reached, where the greatest dimensions will be shown. 
The third wedge is seen bj looking at the cow from the front. 
The sharp edge of the wedge will be her shoulders, the wedge 
thickening as it goes downward until a point at the floor of the 
chest has been reached. Cows built thus, however, usually 
spread their front feet slightly, thus continuing the wedge to 
the ground. May Rilma, Fig, 2, illustrates the point of this 
paragraph. 

The escutcheon is that area of the cov/ situated immediately 
above the rear portion of the udder and extending upward and 
laterally onto the thighs, on which area the hair naturally turns 
upward rather than downward. Particular attention was first 
drawn to this mark by Francis Gueiion, in France, prior to 
1837. Mr, Guenon classified the various kinds of escutcheons 
into eight classes and eight orders, making sixty-four difierent 
combinations, to each one of which he afiixed a figure which he 
calculated would be the amount of milk which that cow would 
yield under good treatment in a year. His statements were so 
positive and his description so exact tliat universal credence was 
given to the theory. He was honored and pensioned by the 
French Goveniment. The breed associations almost universally 
adopted the escutcheon as a point of excellence and it has been 
retained on most score cards until the present. With no exact 
comparisons, however, the universal belief in the value of the 
escutcheon has died out until few can be found now to defend 
its presence on the score card of the modern breeds. More exact 
evidence of the fact that tliere is little or no merit in the 
escutcheon was furnished by Charles Moran, senior student at 
the University of Vermont, in 1910. His study, covering a 
year of record of one hundred cows in three herds, showed no 
consistent agreement between the quantity or the quality of 
milk which the cow was supposed to give according to the Guenon 
theory and the amount she did yield as measured by daily 
weighings and the Babcock test. 



38 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE 

Tests of Economy. — The efficiency of cows possessing tlie 
dairy type as against those not having such form was well brought 
out by the figures contained in Minnesota Bui. ISTo. 67 (1900), 
from which the following tables are arranged : 

Test I 

Dairy Type Not Dairy Type 

Gross receipts $77.77 $54.40 

Cost of feed 30.82 28.21 

Net receipts $46.95 $26.19 

Amt. returned per $1.00 worth 

of feed 2.52 1.93 

The dair)'-type group consumed 9.25 per cent more feed, but 
yielded 43 per cent more butter. On the average they consumed 
$2.61 worth more feed per cow but returned $21.76 more for 
butter. 

Test II* 

Dairy Tj-pe Not Dairy Type 

Gross receipts $41.55 $28.03 

Cost of feed 15.14 13.86 

Net receipts $26.41 $14.17 

Returned per $1.00 expended 2.74 2.02 

The group of dairy-type cows returned nearly twice as much 
profit so far as dairy returns are concerned as the non-dairy-type 
group. 

Test III 

Dairy Type Not Dairy Type 

Gross receipts $75.71 $51.01 

Cost of feed 37.60 30.64 

Net receipts $38.1 1 $20.37 

Return per $1.00 2.01 1.66 

The dairy-type group, on an average, consumed 22.7 per 
cent more feed but returned 48.4 per cent more butter and 87 

* This winter's work was done when feed was unusually cheap. 



TESTS OF ECONOMY 39 

per cent more profit. It consumed $6.96 worth more feed per 
cow but returned $17. 74 more profit. 

Test IV 

Dairy Type Not Dairy Type 

Gross receipts $80.26 $48.83 

Cost of feed 23.35 22.11 

Net receipts $56.91 $26.72 

Eeturn per $1.00 3.43 2.21 




Fig. 13. — Young cow, a bad rump, poorly developed udder, and lacking in thrift and vigor. 

The dairy-type group consumed 5.1 per cent more "feed but 
returned 112.9 per cent more profit. They average, per cow, 
,$1.2-1 worth more feed but returned $31.43 more for butter. 

The above " tests " represent a winter's w^ork on from five to 
ten cows in each group. The figiires prove that, dairy pro- 
duction alone considered, the cows of essential dairy type are 
pronouncedly more economical and profitable than those of 
non-dairy type. 



40 ELEMENT OF DAIRY TYPE 

A secondary lesson, yet a valuable one, brought out in the 
foregoing study, is the fact that the common and non-dairy type 
cow when treated rationally is considerably better, even in the 
dairy, than no cow at all. When charged with feed at farm 
prices and credited with butter fat only (skim milk, manure 
and calf paying for labor, etc.) they returned from $1.66 to 
$2.21 for every dollar's worth of feed eaten. 

The farmer should hesitate long before selling off his cows 
until he knows where he can replace them with better ones 
(Fig. 13). 

A cHAMrio:Nr cow 

The perfection already reached in the various points, as 
well as the degree of intensity desirable in them, varies with the 
several breeds, but reviewing the question of dairy type by 
means of figure 14, we find that our present ideal of what a 
dairy cow ought to be will include the following points : 

1. Nostril, open, clear. 

2. Muzzle, broad and lips strong. 

3. Forehead, broad. 

4. Eyes, bright, full. 

5. Jaws, strong, well muscled. 

G. Neck, muscular but not thick. 

7. tShoulder tops, sharjj, at least not coarse or heavy. 

8. Crops, well muscled. 

9. Cliine, vertebrae open-spaced. 
10. Loin, broad) and strong. 

IL Eump, level, long. 

12. Hip bones, broad between joints. 

13. Thurl joints, high far apart. 

14. Tin bones, prominent, far apart. 

15. Tail, long, tapering. 
10. Switch, full, brushed. 

17. Thigh, straight or incurving, not too thick. 

18. Shoulder, lean, firm, not covered over with fat. 

19. Dewlap, not heavy, throat clean. 

20. Brisket, more prominent on some breeds, not coarse. 

21. Heart girth, deep, and wide from side to side at bottom of chest. 

22. ]\lilk wells, large, niimerous. 

23. Milk vein, large, crooked, elastic and running well forward. 

24. Fore udder, extending well forward. 



A CHAMPION COW 



41 




42 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE 

25. Kear udder should he full and attached high and broadly, whole well held 

up, not pendulous. 

26. Teats, four to five inches long. Well spaced, cylindrical in form. 

27. Legs below hock and knee refined, not heavy nor coarse. 

28. Pasterns, strong, upright. 

Type Essential to Economy. — There are numerous instances 
of cows producing large yields of milk and milk fat, whicli cows 
carried more flesh than is usually accepted as most desirable 
in dairy cows, but it has not been shown that these large-produc- 
ing cows necessarily^ yielded milk as economically for the feed 
consumed as those of large capacity, carrying less flesh. While 
it is true that type is primarily more essential than breed, it is 
equally true that within certain breeds the desired type is far 
more likely to be found than in others. Thus any farmer 
desiring cows which will give milk economically will do wisely 
to go to one of the recognized standard dairy breeds for his 
stock, and it is only by maintaining pure breeds and by working 
within the breed to develop the strongest dairy type that we 
shall secure in time the most efficient dairy animals. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by dairy type? 

2. What is meant by capacity? 

3. Does a cow develop capacity by eating or does she eat because she 

has capacity? 

4. Illustrate how it is essential that a cow have capacity if she is to be 

rated as a good dairy cow. 

5. WTiat is meant by dairy temperament? 

6. What are the indications of dairy temperament? 

7. What is constitution? 

8. What effect has fatness on the work to be done by the heart. 

9. What conditions of the mammary organs indicate high dairy quality? 

10. Why is the feminine "look" of a cow a point to be noted? 

11. Explain the "triple wedge." 

12. Which was recognized first, breed or type, as being the more essential in 

economy of production? 

13. Does excessively large production mean economical production? 

14. Where should one look for the type of animal desired? 

15. What is the escutcheon, and of what importance is it? 



CHAPTER VII 
THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 

Theke are in America seventeen or more distinct pure breeds 
of cattle and many grades and crosses of each, breed. The great 
mass presents similar general qualities, but groups and in- 
dividuals differ in vital detail with respect to degree of useful- 
ness for any particular purpose. Some are blocky with broad 
backs and are known as beef breeds, while others are more 
ang-ular in form and thinner over the shoulders, and are known 
as dairy animals, 3'et there is no cow so strongly bred for beef 
that she will not give some milk, which milk may be and occa- 
sionally is drawn by hand and turned into dairy channels. All 
the breeds of pronounced beef-type cattle yield milk consid- 
erably above the average in fat content. There is no cow, on 
the other hand, so intensely bred for milk production but that 
she does develop a body which may be and regularly is used for 
human food when she is past usefulness in the dair\^ It is a 
matter of common knowledge and record that even the " common 
to fair " cows sell for beef at from $40 to $60 regularly on 
the open market. This is fully one-half the price per pound 
paid for good, well-finished beef steers, while a steer from one 
of the admitted dairy breeds, such as Holstein, Ayrshire, or 
Guernsey, is cut in price only one-half to one per cent per pound 
from that paid for good, beef -bred cattle. The loss in beefing 
the male calves of dairy cows is therefore not a total, but a 
fractional one and amounts to only 7 to 15 per cent of the amount 
paid for top-notch cattle. 

That many of the heavy breeds, such as Red Polls, Brown 
Swiss and Shortborns, will yield more freely than has for years 
been required of them, has been well demonstrated within the 
last few years. 

The meat- and the milk-producing ability of the great mass 
of cattle in this country may well be represented by figure 15. 

A glance at the diagram emphasizes the fact that " beef " 

43 



44 



THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 



cows do yield milk and that '' dairy " cows do have bodies and 
will also indicate that there may be (and we know there are) 
masses of cattle occupying places all the way from one end of 
the diagram to the other. 

At this point the question naturally arises : " What is a 
dairy cow ? " " When is a cow a dairy cow, and when is she a 
beef cow, if in fact she both functions and is used in both fields 
of usefulness 'i " While any one certain breed will occupy a 
fairly definite position on the scale at "a " or " j " or " e " or 
" h," individual members of all the breeds Avill vary so greatly 
as to lap over onto the position normally occupied by another 
breed. Furthermore, there are strains of common cows in some 
sections of the country that would as a whole occupy a position 
about " b " in meat and " j " or " i " in milk-producing ability. 
This is as a class the " scrub " cow that is to be eotten rid of.. 



DAIRY 
CATTLE 




BEEF 
CATTLE 



Fig. 15. — Illustrating the dual function and use of cattle. 

There are others, however, that will rank about '' c " or " d '' in 
milk products and '' h " or " i " in beef products. 

Those animals that have been selected, fed and handled 
chiefly for tlie production of milk, are known as belonging to the 
" dairy " breeds, and those in which the production of flesh for 
meat has been the principal aim arekno^vii as "beef breeds, while 
those animals that have been bred, fed and liandled to occupy a 
midway position, are in America called " dual i)urpose " and in 
England " general purpose " cattle. They could as aptly be 
termed '' heavy dairy " or "• free-milking beef " cattle. In truth, 
all cows are dual-purpose cows, in function and in fact. 

By name the breeds of domestic cattle now regularly bred 
in America are: Aberdeen Angus, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, 



QUESTIONS 



45 



Devon, Dexter, Dutcn Belted, Essex, French-Canadian, Gallo- 
wav, Guernsey, Hereford, Holstein-Friesian, Jersey, Kerry, 
Red Polls, Shorthorn, and West Highland. 

In the following- pages those breeds of cattle will be dis- 
cussed which have any particular claim on tlie subject of dairy- 
ing in America and have been arranged in the order of official 
records as to quantity of butter fat produced in a year, regardless 
of the cost of its production. On January 1st, 1916, the order 
was: Holstein-Friesian, Guernsey, Jersey, Ayrshire, Red Polls, 
Brown Swiss, Shorthorn, Dutch Belted and French-Canadian. 

The most pronoiuiced beef-type cattle, such as Hereford, 
Angus, and Galloway, are so seldom used for dairy purposes and 
are so pronouncedly good in meat food production, and several 
other breeds are represented in this country by so few animals 
that no detailed study of them wnll be made in this volume. 

Secretaries of Breed Associations. — The various breed asso- 
ciations naturally change secretaries as seldom as possible. For 
this reason the names and addresses given below for tlie breeds 
discussed in this book are very likely to remain correct for a 
number of vears. 



Breed Name 
Ayrshire 
Brown Swiss 
Dutch Belted 
French-Canadian 

Guernsey 
Holstein-Friesian 
Holstein Adv. Registry 
Jersey 



Red Polls 
Shorthorn 



'milking) 



Secretary's Name 
C. M. Win.'slow 
Ira Inman 

E. J. Kirby 
J. A. Couture 

W. H. Caldwell 

F. L. Houghton 
M. H. Gardner 
R. M. Gow 

H. A. Martin 
F. W. Harding 

QUESTIONS 



Secretary's Address 
Brandon, Vermont 
Beloit, Wisconsin 
Covert, Michigan 
49 Rue Des Jardins, 

Quebec, Canada 
Peterboro, N. H. 
Brattleboro, Vt. 
Delavan, Wisconsin 
324 W. 23rd Street, 

New York, N. Y. 
Gotham, Wisconsin 
13 Dexter Street, 

Chicago, Illinois 



1. How many pure l)reeds of cattle are there in America? Name them. 

2. What is a " dairy breed "? 

3. Explain how all breeds are two-purpose breeds? 

4. What nine breeds of cattle in America are considered in this dairy study' 

5. What three beef breeds are seldom or never used for dairy purposes? 



CHAPTER VIII 
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 

This breed is one of the oldest, of either beef or dairy 
animals, represented in America. It had its beginning in 
Holland, chiefly in a northeast province, Friesland, and is un- 
questionably the same which made the Hollanders famous 
throughout the civilized world more ^han a thousand years ago. 
Even back during the flourishing days of the old Roman Empire, 
large, black and white oxen, and cheese were continually being 
sent from the regions now known as Holland. A race of 
cattle with many of the j^resent characteristics of the Holstein- 
Eriesians doubtless were being maintained practically pure 
fully 2000 years ago and Holland has remained famous as a 
dairy center during the centuries since. 

Though the parent stock has been kept pure, many off-shoots 
and modifications have taken place in surrounding countries; 
thus, modified Holland cattle are to be found in various parts of 
Belgium, Prussian Holland, E^orth Germany, Germany, and to 
some extent in JSTormandy of France. This blood contributed 
to the development of the early Teeswater cattle, now known 
as Durham or Shorthorns, as well as having also furnished 
foundation for much improvement effected of late years in 
portions of Russia. This breed is believed also to have been 
used to some extent in establishing the Ayrshire breed. 

Home Conditions. — The land upon which this breed of 
stock has been pastured for many generations is largely of a low, 
marshy order ; in fact, much of the land is that reclaimed from 
the ocean by the thrifty Hollanders, who diked across the arm 
of the sea and literally pumped the water back into the ocean by 
means of windmills. The land thus reclaimed is immensely 
fertile but, being lower than the level of tlie ocean, continues 
moist and comparatively cold. Grass grows luxuriantly, while 
such crops as our American com are not grown at all and small 
46 



BODY CHARACTERISTICS 47 

grains but slightly. Upon these moist, rank pastures the cows 
are pastured in summer. They are not permitted to roam 
about, however, as in this country, but are tethered out. This 
system of feeding and handling is ideal for the production of 
bodily size and a quiet disposition. The grass literally grows 
up before them and after them. Milking is done in the field 
by the dairy maids, rather than fatigue the cows by walking 
them to a stable. They are likewise protected from chilling 
rains and from flies by blankets. An abundance of succulent 
feed, close at hand, and a protection from all adverse conditions, 
— these are the circumstances which naturally make for size of 
animal, quiet disposition and an abundant flow of milk, although 
of medium to low fat grade. 

Great care is taken to rear breeding stock from the best 
animals only, since the land is valued at from $1000 to $2000 
per acre, and brings an annual rental of $30 to $50 per acre. 
Under such conditions only the genuinely profitable animals 
will be kept. Surplus calves are fatted for veal. To do this 
most economically the little animals are kept in crates in order 
that they may not run about and waste any of the milk that has 
been fed them. They are also kept in semi-darkness in order 
that the gain may be more economically made. 

Body Characteristics — The color of the Ilolstein-rriesian 
in this country is always black and white. Very rarely, indeed, 
a red and white animal is dropped from pure parents, but it is 
not eligible to registry. The size is large. A mature cow 
should weigh 1300 pounds, and not infrequently individuals 
attain 1500 and occasionally 1700 pounds. A mature bull of 
this breed (Fig. 16) should weigh at least 1800 pounds, and 
2200 or 2400 pounds are not infrequent in fully matured 
animals. The disposition of the Holsteins, as a breed, is very 
mild, in fact, they are so quiet as to be one of the easiest breeds 
to handle. They are not resentful. They are greedy, almost 
voracious, in their eating habits and naturally they are not as 
particular in regard to the condition of their feed as are some of 
the more sensitive breeds. The calves weigh ninety pounds or 
more at birth and are easy to raise. As a breed they are com- 



48 



HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 



paratively slow in maturing, however, thus postponing the time 
of income somewhat longer than with the smaller breeds. 

Dairy Characteristics. — The Ilolsteins as a breed may be 
said to produce the largest quantity of tlie leanest milk of any of 
the breeds in America. Though the fat percentage is compara- 
tively low, the fact that she yields such liberal quantities of 
milk has made her an easy leader in the matter of total food 
production and again very recently the leader of all the breeds 




Fig. 16. — King of the Pontiacs. Holstein bull, which at the age of ten years had 162 
A R.O. daughters. Developed and owned by Stevens Bros. Co., Liverpool, N.Y. 

in the quantity of fat produced in a year (Fig. 17). The table 
given later in this chapter shows the milk and fat records of some 
of the best representatives of the breed. 

JSTot only is the percentage of fat in the milk of the Holstein 
rather less than that in other breeds, but the size of the fat 
globule is slightly smaller. This fact has been stressed in the 
matter of choice of milk for infant feeding (Fig. 130). It has 
recently been shown, however, that the difference is so slight as 
to be all Init negligible.^ The great benefit to be derived from 

^Vermont Bui. No. 195, 1916. " ' ' . 



DAIRY CHARACTERISTICS 



49 



the use of Ilolstcin milk for infant feeding is due to tlie smaller 
amount and the smaller proportionate amount of fat present 
rather than to the small size of the fat globule. The milk of the" 
llolstein carries a comparatively higher amount of albumen to 
casein. This fact maj have a slight value in infant feeding. 
Before the invention of the centrifugal cream separator the fact 
that the Holstein fat globule was small rendered this breed 
doubly handicapped in the matter of butter production, since 




Fia. 17. — Duchess Skylark Ormsby, the world's champion in butter fat produotion. 
Record for one year: Milk, 27,761 pounds test, 4.34 per cent fat; butter fat, 1205.09 pounds, 
equivalent to 1507.36 pounds of SO per cent butter. Developed and owned by John B. 
Irwin, Minneapolis, Minn. 

the cream of llolstein milk cannot rise as promptly nor as com- 
pletely as that on the Jersey or Guernsey milk. The lack of 
color, too, is an item in some markets. llolstein milk is par- 
ticularly devoid of the yellow color. The color of milk or 
cream, however, is an exceedingly poor ga'uge of its richness and 
is of no consequence in commercial butter or cheese making. 
Cows of this breed have held for years the world's record for 
butter production as well as for milk production. Taken in her 



50 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 

entirety, tlie Ilolstein cow is one of the most powerful and 
valuable dairy machines. 

Beef Characteristics — Since the laws of animal breeding 
are but poorly known by any one and are difficult of control by 
the best, we must expect that as variations occurred and in- 
dividual preferences varied, the stock even in the older countries, 
should vary somewhat in their intensity of dairy type. In some 
descriptions of the breeds four forms have been recognized, 
namely: the milk fonn, the milk and beef form, the beef and 
milk form, and the beef form. The Ilolsteins, however, are not 
first-rate beef animals since they are of slow maturity, com- 
paratively heavy of bone and seldom place the gain either where 
it will be most valuable or in the most valuable condition when 
rightly placed. Although the prejudice on the part of buyers 
has doubtless caused a greater diiference in price than the actual 
difference in carcass would warrant, it must be admitted that a 
general difference exists. A Holstein steer will gain in weight 
as rapidly and as cheaply as any animal, however, and will be 
but little less profitable than beef-bred steers. Grade Holstein 
. bull calves make a good grade of veal and since they weigh from 
90 to 100 pounds at birth, they may very readily be made to 
weigh 190 to 200 pounds at eight to nine weeks of age. 

Introduction to America — The first importation of cattle 
from Holland occurred in 1G09, or soon thereafter, upon the 
settlement of New Amsterdam, now New York, by the Dutch. 
Other consignments were received for the Dutch holdings 
farther west in the state, but all these animals were not kept 
pure. They formed, however, the foundation stock for that 
section of the country and to-day New York state may be said to 
be the Holstein center of the United States. Others were 
brought over in 1795 and added to the general stock of the 
country. The first to be imported and kept pure arrived in 
18G1 in Massachusetts. From 1875 to 1885 about 10,000 were 
imported. From 1885 until 1903 few, if any, came over, partly 
because of the presence, in Holland, of the foot and mouth disease 
and partly because of the high charges for the registration of the 
imported animals. 



ADAPTATIONS 51 

The first American association for this breed was called the 
Holstein Herd Book Association. It was established in 1872. 
In 1879 the Dutch-Friesian Association was fomied. The 
former Association was formed chiefly with the animals im- 
ported from the province of Holstein, North Germany, while the 
Dntch-Friesian Association admitted the animals which had 
been imported from Friesland, Holland, and their descendants. 
The nselessness of maintaining two associations when the ani- 
mals in question were essentially the same was aj^parent and in 
1885 they were united vmder the name, " The Holstein-Friesian 
Association of America." 

At the present time the breed ranks in number second only to 
the Jerseys in America and, in some places, especially tlie north- 
west regions, are gaining more rapidly than any other dairy 
breed (Figs. 18, 19 and 20). 

Foreign Distribution. — This Holland breed is now repre- 
sented in most of the civilized countries of the world. It is not 
only common in Germany, France and Sweden, and in favor 
with the Boer farmers of South Africa, and the peasants of 
Russia, but also is to be found in liberal numbers in Japan, 
Mexico and South America. 

Adaptations. — There are certain places which the Holstein 
cow fits better than any other breed : First, as the market milk 
cow. Since she produces the largest quantity of milk, the 
cheapest milk, and milk which is fully as rich as the people of 
the city seem willing to pay for, she is almost universally adopted 
wherever the product is to be sold by the quart or gallon. 

Second, as a cheese factory cow she excels because she pro- 
duces more pounds of milk solids during the year and therefore 
makes more pounds of cheese than any other breed. The fat 
content is so low that the cheese would be improved by the addi- 
tion of the milk of the Jersey or Guerasey, yet when the cheese 
maker does his part well there is no necessity for introducing the 
milk of any other breed for the purpose of producing quality. 

Third, milk condensing. In regions of milk condenseries, 
the Holstein is largely preferred, chiefly because she will pro- 



52 



HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 



diice more pounds of total solid matter in her milk than the other 
breeds. Thus, any farmer keeping Ilolsteins would be able to 
deliver to the factory more milk from Avhich more condensed 
milk can be made. 

Fourth,, in very large dairies the milking must of necessity be 
done either by a large number of hired men who are, as a class, 
notorious for their unreliable habits and not particularly dis- 
posed to be gentle in their manner or particular about the milk, or 




F G. 18. — Sir Beets Cornucopia Xetherland. A ciiampion Holstein bull owned by W. S. 
IMoscrip, St. Paul, jMinn. 



by the use of some milking machine. The mechanical milker is 
an unsympathetic thing at best, but the Holstein cows are very 
docile and while not as responsive to caresses as are the Jersey 
or Guernsey, they are not as resentful of coarse handling. 

Fifth, from the drift of affairs in the middle west and north- 
west countries, as well as from a study of the cows themselves, 
it seems evident that the Holstein is rather better adapted to the 
needs and conditions of the general dairy farmer than any other 
dairv breed. The man whose tirst interest is his fields is not 



RECORDS 



53 



likely to stop his gang plow early in the afternoon to stable the 
cows even though it is becoming chilly, and cows so sitnated 
often must go out of the stable in the morning before the farmer 
goes to the fields with his teams. The quiet, deep-bodied Hol- 
stein is proving herself able to withstand such conditions. More- 
over, on such farms a comparatively large number of pigs are 
kept. To put young pigs in the best condition and to make the 
best use of the corn, fed later, skim milk is needed. "When skim 




P'iG. 19 -Pietertje Maid Ormsby — Adv. Reg. Holstein cow, nine years old, with 
seventh calf. Heavy production does not necessarily " burn out" the cow. Owned by 
John B. Irwin. 

milk is present the sows may be made to farrow both spring and 
fall without injury to either litter or dam. When the indirect in- 
come from pigs, calves, and not infrequently colts, is considered, 
with the direct income from the sale of butter fat, the Holstein 
has little to fear in the competition with those breeds which 
produce butter fat more cheaply per pound. 

Records.- — During the earlier days of all the breeds, records, 
if kept, were private. From some of these unauthenticated 



o4 



HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 




RECORDS 55 

sources wonderful performances have been reported. Though 
they were held to be questionable at the time, many, if not all, 
have since been equalled by animals working under official 
supervision. 

The Advanced Registry system was begun by the Holstein 
breeders, and Mr. S. Iloxie, of Yorkville, New York, should be 
given the credit for having developed the system by which the 
various State Experiment Stations and Agricultural Colleges 
are now authorized to send out official testers to verify the 
records made. This association was the first to adopt the Bab- 
cock test as the official method of determining the fat. This 
■^^as done in 189-i. While at first the records were reported 
in terms of butter at SO per cent fat, the rules were later modified 
so that the official reports now are upon the basis of fat only. 
To convert the quantity of fat to butter equivalent it has been 
customary to add one-sixth of the fat to the fat. In the study 
of any pedigree note should be made as to whether the records 
are in terms of fat or in terms of butter, and whetlier the butter 
was figured on the basis of SO or of S5 per cent fat. 

The minimum requirements for the admittance of a Holstein 
to advanced registry are as follows : 

2 years old 7.2 pounds of fat in 7 days. 

3 years old 8.8 pounds of fat in 7 days. 

4 years old 10.4 pounds of fat in 7 days. 

• 5 years old 12.0 pounds of fat in 7 days. 

These requirements were established when cows M^ere not as 
well fed nor as skillfully handled as now. The question may 
well be raised whether the requirements for admission should 
not now be raised. This would seem evident from the number 
of animals capable of passing the advanced standing, and the 
fact that a number of animals have more than doubled the re- 
quirements. The animals standing highest in the seven-day 
records up to March 1, 1916, were as follows : 



56 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 

Advanced Herd Lbs. 

Registry Book Lbs. Butter 

Number Number Milk Fat 

K. P. Pontiac Lass 11108 100812 585.9 35.343 

Valdessa Scott 2iid 10780 72311 094.6 35.500 

Sadie Vale Concordia 4th i0840 100314 091.4 32.848 

Mable Segis Korndyke 22540 101784 010.2 32.257 

Johanna De Kol Van Beers 5981 75131 003.4 32.059 

Sadie Vale Concordia 4th Pie- 

tertje 24960 142024 729.5 30.741 

Peterje Floa Artis 15101 114334 794.5 30.513 

Pontiac Lady Korndyke 11276 92700 001.4 30.422 

Pontiac Pet 01 «8 09710 590.7 30.142 

Belle Mercedes Lady 22258 77702 721.6 29.968 

It will be noted from tlie above that there arc many cows 
which are doubling admission requirements and a few which are 
able to produce almost three times the required amount. 

Yearly Records. — Early records were largely reported in the 
form of pounds of milk yielded in a year. A few of the best 
of the yearly records are reported below : 

Pietertje 2nd 26.021 lbs. milk in 1 yr. 

Princess of Wayne 29,008 lbs. milk in 1 yr. 

Clotliilde 26,021 lbs. milk in 1 yr. 

Clothilde 2nd 23,602 lbs. milk in 1 yr. 

Sultana 22,042 lbs. milk in 1 yr. 

Boukje 21,679 lbs. milk in 1 yr. ^ 

Fat records were not made from these animals. Recent 
yearly records have not only been authenticated bj^ qualitied and 
impartial representatives of the state but also ai"e made to in- 
clude the fat as well as the milk yielded. 

Requirements for Official Yearly Records, — C^ows freshen- 
ing at two years of age or younger must joroduce 250.5 pounds 
of butter fat, and for each day they are over two years of age, 
at the beginning of the test, an additional requirement of 1/10 
pound. This rate of increase fur each day over two years of 
age brings the five-year age requirement up to 360 pounds of 
butter fat. Bulls are required to have two daughters in the 
Advanced Registry before they can be listed as Advanced Reg- 
istry Sires. 

A few of the best official records made by mature animals 
for a full vear are shown beloAv : 



THE BREED'S FUTURE 57 

Hemi-O facial Yearly or Lactation Records for Full Aged Cows 

No. Pounds Milk Pounds Fat 

Duchess Skylark Ormsby 124514 27,761.7 1205.09 

Findenie Pride Johanna Kue 121083 28,403.7 1176.47 

Finderne Holingen Fayne 144551 24,612.8 1116.05 

Banostine Belle De Kol 90441 27,404.4 1058.34 

Pontiac C'lothilde De Kol :nd 69991 25,318.0 1017.28 

High-lawn Hartog De Kol 84319 25,592.5 998.34 

Colantha 4th's Johanna 48577 27,432.5 998.2(i 

Lothian :Maggie De Kol 90209 27,967.6 990.80 

Maple Crest Pontiac Flora Hartog. . 143950 25,106.3 986.11 

Crown Pontiac Josey 101812 28,752.3 982.23 

It will be noted that all the claims made for the cows in private 
records have been eqnalled in recent years, so whetlier the earlier 
reports were true or not it is evident that thej could have been. 

The breed's future depends very much on what the men who 
are now breeding the animal make it, and this in turn upon the 
completeness of the ideal for the breed formed, held and followed 
by the breeders. 

That there are now, inherited from the earlier workers, sev- 
eral points about the animal that need strengthening cannot be 
gainsaid. A, study of the animals as they are, reveals the fact 
that a great many, even among the pure-bred herds, are long 
legged, high and " upstanding " with shallow body and indiffer- 
ent udder. Such should be and are being eliminated but not fast 
enough. Others are too compact in build, too beefy in type to be 
economical producers. It is true that breeding to sons of ad- 
vanced registry ^ cows, tends to eliminate these two classes of 
undesirable animals. It has often led into another error, less 
vital yet worthy of consideration, and that is the sloping rumps 
or rumpiness. Many animals possessing ugly shapes yet having 
deep, strong bodies have made very satisfactory records. While 
it is true that it is yield, not fonn, that should be tirst sought, it is 
equally true that cows may be both good and good to the eye. 
While the demand is keen for stock the bad rumps may pass, but 
the calls of the near future will be for breeding stock from ad- 
vanced registry dams, which are also possessed of straight top 
lines and well balanced udders. The wise breeder of the present 
M'ill plan to have the stock to meet the demands of the near future. 

* Official advanced registry is designated by the letters, A. R. 0. 



58 



HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 



Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Friesian Cows 



Parts Description 

Head Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in 

contour 2 

Forehead Broad between the eyes ; dishing 2 

Face Of medium length; clean and trim, espe- 
cially under the eyes; showing facial 
veins; the bridge of nose straight. . . 2 

Muzzle r>road with strong lips 1 

Ears Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair 

plentiful and soft ; the secretions oily 
and abundant 1 

Eyes Large ; full ; mild ; bright 2 

Horns Small; tapering finely towards the tips; 

set moderately narrow at base ; oval ; 
inclining forward ; well bent in- 
ward; of fine texture; in appearance 
waxy 1 

Neck Long; fine and clean at juncture with the 

head ; free from dewlap ; evenly and 
smoothly joined to slioulders 4 

Shoulders Slightly lower than hips; fine and even 

over tops; moderately broad and full 
at sides 3 

Chest Of moderate depth and lovvness; smooth 

and moderately full in the brisket; 
full in the foreflanks (or through 
the heart ) 6 

Crops Moderately full 2 

Chine Straight; strong; broadly developed; 

with open vertebrae 6 

Barrel Long ; of wedge shape ; well rounded ; 

with large abdomen trimly held up; 
(in judging the last items age must 
be considered ) 7 

Loin and Hips Broad; level or nearly level between 

hook-bones; level and strong later- 
ally; spreading from chine broadly 
and nearly level ; hook-bones fairly 

prominent 6 

Rump Long; high; broad; with roomy pelvis; 

nearly level laterally ; comparatively 
full above the thurl ; carried out 
straight to dropping of tail 6 



Possible Student's 
Score Score 



SCALE OF POINTS 



59 



Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Friesian Cous {continued) 



Parts 

iiiiiii . . . 
(Quarters 
Flank . . . 
Legs . . . . 



Tail. 



Hair and Handling. 



Mammary Veins . 



Udder and Teats . 



Teats 

Escutclieona 



Possible Student's 
Description Score Score 

. High ; broad 3 

.Deep; comparatively full 2 

. Deep ; comparatively full 2 

.Comparatively short; lean and nearly 
straight; wide apart; firmly and 
squarely set under the body; feet of 
medium size, round, solid and deep. . 4 
.Large at base; the setting well back; 
tapering finely to switch; the end of 
tlie bone reaching to hock or below; 

the switch full 2 

.Hair liealthful in appearance; fine, soft 
and furry; skin of medium thickness 
and loose; mellow under the hand; 
the secretions oily, abundant and of 

a rich brown or yellow color 8 

. Very large ; very crooked ( age must be 
taken into consideration in judging 
size and crookedness) ; entering very 
large or numerous orifices ; double 
extension; with special developments 
such as branches, connections, etc... 10 
. Very capacious ; very flexible ; quarters 
even; nearly filling the space in the 
rear below and extending well for- 
ward in front ; broad and well held up 12 
.Well formed; wide apart; plump and of 

convenient size 2 

. Largest ; finest 2 



Totals 100 



Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Friesian Bulls 

Possible Student's 
Parts Description Score Score 

Head Showing full vigor ; elegant in contour 2' 

Forehead Broad between the eyes; dishing 2 

Face Of medium length ; clean and trim, 

especially under tlie eyes; the bridge 

of the nose straight 2 

Muzzle Broad with strong lips 1 

Ears Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair 

plentiful and soft; the secretions oily 
and abundant 1 



60 



HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 



Scale of Points for Jiuhiing Holstrin-Fricsian Bulls (vontinued) 



Parts Description 

Eyes Large ; full ; mild ; bright 2 

Horns Short; medium size at base; gradually 

diminishing towards tips; oval; in- 
clining forward; moderately curved 
inward; of fine texture; in appear- 
ance waxy 1 

Neck Long; finely crested (if the animal is 

mature) ; fine and clean at juncture 
with the head ; nearly free from dew- 
lap ; strongly and smoothly joined to 

shoulders 5 

Shoulders Of medium height; medium thickness; 

and smoothly rounded at tops; broad 
and full at sides : smooth over front 4 

Chest Deep and low ; well filled and smootli in 

the brisket; broad between the fore- 
arms; full in the forefianks (or 

through the heart ) 7 

Crops Comparatively full; nearly level with the 

shoulders 4 

Chine Strong ; straight ; broadly developed ; 

with open vertebrae 6 

Barrel Long; well rounded; with large ab- 
domen ; strongly and trimly held up 7 

Loin and Hips Broad; level or nearly level between 

hook-bones; level and strong later- 
ally ; spreading out from chine broad- 
ly and nearly level ; hook-bones fairly 

j^rominent 7 

Rump Long; broad; high ; nearly level later- 
ally; compsiratively full above the 
thurl ; carried out straight to drop- 
ping of tail 7 

Thurl High ; broad 4 

Quarters Deep ; broad ; straight behind ; wide and 

full at sides; open in the twist 5 

Flanks Deep ; full 2 

Legs Comparatively short; lean and nearly 

straight; wide apart; firmly and 
squarely set imder the body ; arms 
wide, strong and tapering; I'eet of 
medium size, round, solid and deep . . 5 



Possible Student's 
Score Score 



QUESTIONS 



61 



locale of Points for .Ju<hiin(j Holstein-Fricsian Bulls {continued) 

_ . . Possible Student's 

Parts Description g^ore Score 

Tail Large at base ; the setting well back ; 

tapering finely to switch; the end of 
the bone reaching to hocks or below; 
tlie switch full 2 

Hair and Handling. ... Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft 
and furry; skin of medium thickness 
and loose ; mellow under the hand ; 
the secretions oily, abundant and of 
a rich lirown or yellow color '10 

Man'imary Veins Large; full; entering large orifices; 

douI)le extension with special develop- 
ments such as forks, branches, con- 
nections, etc 10 

Rudimentary Teats . . . Laige ; well placed 2 

Escutcheons Largest ; finest 2 

Total 100 

QUESTIONS 

1. ^^'llere did the Holstein-Friesian breed originate? 

2. Describe the soil and pasturing conditions of Holland. 

3. Describe a Holstein-Friesian cow as to body and dairy characteristics. 

4. What is the disposition of the Holstein? 

5. What dairy characteristic is the most outstanding for this breed ? 

6. What cow and what breed now holds the world's record for butter fat 

production in a year? 

7. In what four respects does holstein milk differ from Jersey milk? 

8. \Miat can be said of the beef and veal quality of the Holstein ? 

9. When and by what people were Holland cows first brought to America? 

10. When and where did the first to be kept pure arrive? 

11. When was the first American association for the breed organized? What 

was it called? 

12. When was the second association for the breed formed? 

13. \Mien did the two associations unite? What name was given to the 

breed ? 
] 4. How does the breed rank in point of number of dairy cattle in the 

United States ? 
15. Into what foreign countries have Holland cattle been taken? 
l(i. What four or five places do Holland cows seem best fitted to fill? 

17. When was official advanced registry begun? 

18. How much butter fat must cows of various ages produce in a week to 

be admitted to advanced registrv? 



CHAPTER IX 

GUERNSEYS 

The Guernsey breed of cattle is one of comparatively recent 
recognition, not that animals of the present Guernsey characteris- 
tics have not been in existence for a considerable time, but rather 
that since their qualities and adaptations were so similar to those 
of the Jersey, the two breeds were, during a considerable part of 
the last century, considered as one breed and both in England and 
America were spoken of as " Aldemey " cattle, from the group 
of Aldemey or Cliannel Islands to which the islands of Jersey 
and Guernsey belong. 

Origin. — The foundation stock for tliis breed was undoubt- 
edly very similar to, if not practically identical with that used on 
the island of Jersey. Animals probably from l^ormandy and 
Brittany were, during a very early period, taken to the Island of 
Guernsey, wdiich is the second largest of the Channel Island 
group. Here they have been bred for hundreds of years. During 
the earlier period it is highly probable that some mixing took 
place, espeoially with the animals from the Island of Jersey. 
But the interchange of animals between the two islands had to 
cease in one direction in 1763 when the residents of Jersey for- 
bade the introduction of breeding stock, and in the other direction 
in 1819, since when animals on Guernsey Island have been kept 
pure, even from Jersey influence. In that year the Guernsey 
Islanders passed laws similar to those in operation in Jersey, 
prohibiting the importation of animals other than for slaughter 
(Fig. 21). 

Although doubtless related particularly in respect to founda- 
tion stock, considerable difference now exists between the Guern- 
sey and the Jersey. Professor Low, writing in 1841, seems to 
consider the cattle from the two islands as essentially one breed, 
yet goes on to describe those on Guernsey Island as larger and 
more highly marked with orange yellow skin, and as yielding a 
62 



ORIGIN 



63 



More recent investiga- 



somewliat more yellow milk and bntter 
tions strongly support the theory that at some period several hun- 
dred years ago animals which were the true descendants of the 
" spotted cattle " or Simmenthaler, of Switzerland, had been 
introduced as breeding stock on the Island of Guernsey. Xot 
only is this supported by the larger size, quieter disposition, and 
more yellow secretions of the Guernsey, but also from the fact 
that there are at present animals possessing characteristics 
similar to the Guernsey and Simmenthaler on eitlier side of the 




Fig. 21. — May King of Linda Vista, recently sold for the highest price ever paid for an 
animal of the Guernsey breed. (Courtesy Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minn.) 

Rhine Kiver, from its source in the Alps to its mouth in the 
Xorth Sea. Much of the stock through this valley is frequently 
spoken of as red or red and white, but it is recognized by the 
careful observer that the so-called red is not the deep cherry red 
of the Shorthorn and Hereford, but rather an orange red. It is 
most natural to believe that as the people crossed the mountains 
and followed the river northward they took their patient and 
highly prized animal servants with them. It w^ould then bo but 
a short voyage to Guernsey Island which lies so handily in the 
channel. The exact facts may never be kno^\m, however. 



64 



GUERNSEYS 



Although the Guernseys were taken at an early date to 
England they were used largely by the nobility, the same as were 
the Jerseys. They are now increasing rapidly in popularity in 
the United States. They are not to be found in any considerable 
number on the continent of Europe or in foreign countries. 

Home Conditions. — Guernsey Island comprises only 10,000 
acres, of which approxinuitely 12,000 acres are tillable, the 
southern end of the island being a high cliff. This island rises 




Fig. 22. — Guernsey cow, Murne Cowen. Record for one year, 24,008.4 pounds milk con- 
taining 1098.18 pounds fat. Owned by Anna Dean Farm, Akron, Ohio. 

abruptly out of the ocean to a height of nearly 300 feet and 
slopes away north.ward for a distance of ten miles. The system 
of agriculture here must be adapted to the comparatively cooler 
soil of the north slope, whei'e grass and vegetation tend to grow 
less rapidly but to larger size and greater succulence. It is 
possible that this has had sometliing to do with the larger size of 
the 8000 cattle kept on the island (Fig. 22). Truck gardening 
with a liberal use of green houses for the supply of fresh vege- 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICA 



65 



tables to the English niarhct comprises a large part of the crop- 
growing business. 

Introduction to America In iSlS, 1825 and 1830, 

animals known as Alderneys were brought to Pennsylvania. 
They were probably im2:»orted from England. Whether these 
M'ere Jerseys or Guernseys will probably never be known. They 
were known as Alderneys. The first importation to be kept 
pure arrived in this country in 1850. Most of the importations 
were made from 1880 to 1890, or since 1900. The interests 




Fig. 23. — Robinna's Standard, Cuern?ey bull, bred by Gov. W. D. Hoard, 

Fort Atkinson, Wis. 

of the breed in America are looked after by the American 
Guernsey Cattle Club, which was organized in 1877. This 
organization was essentially a splitting away from the Amer- 
ican Jersey Cattle C^ub, which, previous to this time, had been 
admitting a7iimals of either breed to registry. Over 50,000 
animals have now been registered, of which about one-third 
have been bulls. The distribution of Guernseys in America 
has been largely in the northern states, few going south, and 
fewer still going into Canada. Massachusetts, Xew York, and 
Pennsvlvania in the east, and Wisconsin and Minnesota in the 



66 



GUERNSEYS 




BODY CHARACTERISTICS 67 

middle west, are the states cliiefly interested in tliis breed, 
Wisconsin may be said to be the western center, though Minne- 
sota is gradually becoming a rival for this honor (Figs. 23 and 

Body Characteristics. — Guernsey cows should w^eigh, when 
mature, between 1050 and 1250 pounds, and bulls from 1700 to 
2000 pounds. Considerable variation in size now exists, how- 
ever, due partly to the recent admission into this country, and 
their registration as Guernseys, of the cattle which for centuries 
have been raised on the third largest of the Channel Islands, 
namely, Alderney. For some reason the mature cattle of 
Alderney Island are not as large even as the Jersey and f aU. very' 
far short of matching the ideal Guernsey. There are many who 
believe that it was a serious blunder to admit into America 
these small cattle, especially to admit them in the name of a 
much larger breed. ]\[any breeders and practical dairy farmers, 
who have chosen Guernsey's over Jerseys, have done so because 
of the reputed gi-eater size of the former. The Guernsey 
naturally carries a little more flesh than the Jersey and is not 
so sensitive to the cold. To reduce the scale of the animals now 
is to throw them into the Jersey class in this respect where they 
will probably be easily equalled as efficient dairy animals by 
Jerseys of their owm size. The color of the Guernsey is orange- 
yellow and white, in large patches. The shade of the yellow 
varies from light to a near red. ]^either extreme is desirable. 
The temperament of the Guernsey is particularly agreeable. 
She is intelligent, but not so neiwoiis, not so affectionate nor so 
resentful as the Jersey. ISTeither is she so indifferent as the 
" cold blooded " Ilolstein. Her sunny disposition and easy 
handling habits have won her many friends. There is a ten- 
dency, however, for individuals and families of this breed to 
lay on fat too readily. 

Calves at bii-th should weigh from sixty to eighty pounds 
and are inclined to be somewhat delicate. They are not as 
easily reared as the young of either the Ilolstein or the Ayrshire 
breed. Heifers mature rapidly and unless care is taken are 
liable to begin milking too early for best growth. 



68 



GUERNSEYS 



Dairy Characteristics. — The Guernsey is outstandingly a 
dairy breed. While some members of them carry considerable 
flesh and fatten at a sufficiently good rate, they, in common with 
other dairy breeds, do not place the gain either in the place or in 
the condition to be most highly valuable. Their beef-making 
qualities are entirely secondary. As a whole, the cows of this 
breed yield rather more milk than the Jerseys, but it does not 




Fig. 25. — Dairj' Maid of Pinehurst, Guernsey cow that, at four year.'^ of a^re. produced 
in one year 17,285.3 pounds of milk which contained 910.67 pounds butter fat. Mote deep 
body, well-balanced udder and large milk vein, also the e^•idence of good care. Owned 
by W. W. IMarsh, Waterloo, Iowa. 

test quite as high. A yield of COCO to 9000 pounds of milk per 
year is not at all unusual, while the percentage of fat ranges 
close to five. Comparing their yield with the Holstein, they 
give much less milk, but it tests more. In respect to their milk- 
ing habits as in other points the Guernsey occupies a position 
between the Jersey and the Holstein, but rather more near the 
Jersey. One value of Guernsey milk is its exceedingly vellow 
color. In this respect, it outclasses all other breeds. Not ir^ ^■■■ 
quently butter made from Guernseys on full grass pasture is . .ore 



ADVANCED REGISTRY 69 

more liiglily colored than some markets desire. On the other 
hand, a few animals of Guernsey blood in a herd of llolsteins 
quite naturally increase the color as well as the fat content and 
enhance its selling qualities. The leniith of the lactation period 
of this breed varies with the intensity of dairy temperament and 
with their feed and handling, as with other breeds. 

Adaptations. — There are a few places where the qualities of 
the Guernsey are particularly needed. She fills rather better 
than any other dairy breed, the needs of those snuill farmers who 
do most of their own work and who have but a moderate quantity 
of feed to use. Their problem is how to convert a moderate- 
sized hay stack and other material into a product which will 
bring the most money. Xext to the Jersey the Guernsey con- 
verts the largest proportionate amount of her feed into milk 
fat (Fig. 25), but since the modern Jersey is rather sensitive 
for general farm life in the northwestern sections of the United 
States, the Guernsey is being largely adopted as her substitute. 
A second peculiar place is, as mentioned, in the herds of some of 
the breeds producing a very white milk for market. 

Advanced Registry .^ — In 1901 a system of advanced registry 
Avas adopted and though the test period at first covered either 
seven days or a year the rules were soon changed to recognize 
only the full year test. Records included both the pounds of 
milk yielded and the fat produced as measured by the Babcock 
test. " The owner of the cow keeps the milk records in detail 
throughout the year." Once every month an official represen- 
tative of an experiment station or agricultural college visits the 
farm to confirm the yields recorded by the owner and to test the 
milk produced at that time. A two-year-old cow will not be 
admitted into advanced registry unless she produces 6000 
pounds of milk and 250 pounds of fat. Older cows' are required 
to produce 3.65 pounds of milk per day more, up to five years of 
age, and for each day past two years of age at the time of begin- 
ning, one-tenth of a pound of fat additional is required. Mature 
cows are admitted upon the production of 360 pounds of fat per 
year. Bulls are admitted to advanced registry when two or 
more of their daughters h^ve been admitted. 



70 GUERNSEYS 

It was the record made by the Guernsey cows at the World's 
Fair in Chicago, in 1893, which first attracted the attention of 
the American farmer to this breed, and the record of the cow 
Mary Marshall, when she led a herd of 50 cows of 10 breeds at 
the model dairy at the Pan-American Exposition in 1901, that 
fixed it. Since that time many handsome records have been 
made by members of this breed. Particularly to be noted is the 
record recently made by the cow^, May liilma (Fig. 2), in 
producing in 365 days, 19,630.5 pounds of milk which contained 
1059.59 pounds of fat, equivalent, to 1271.5 pounds of butter 
estimated upon tlie basis of 80 per cent fat. And later the cow 
Murne Cowan produced in one year, 24,008 pounds of milk con- 
taining 1098.18 pounds of fat, equivalent to 1317.82 pounds of 
butter. These records established for this breed the world's cham- 
pionship in butter production — held for about a year. 

The following are the best official yearly records made up to 
October 1, 1915, by this breed: 

Class A — 5 Years and Over 

A Pounds Pounds Percent 

Murne Cowan 19597, A. E. ^^'"^ B F- B.F. 

1906, Ee-entry 8 yr. 9 mo. ■24008.00 1098.18 4.57 

May Rilma 22761, A. E. 

1726, Ee-entry fi yr. 4 mo. 19073.00 1073.41 5.4G 

Spotswood Daisy Pearl 17090, 

A. R. 790, Ee-entry 7 yr. 5 mo. 18002.80 957.38 5.15 

Julie of the Chene, 30460, 

A. E. 2752, Ee-entry 6 yr. 1 mo. 17001.00 953.53 5.40 

Imp. Daisy Moon III 28471, 

A. R. 1909 Ee-entry yr. 4 mo. 18019.40 928.39 5.15 

Class B — 41/. to 5 Years 
Dairymaid of Pineluirst 24656, 

A. E. 843 Ee-entry 4 yr. 8 mo. 17285.30 910.07 5.27 

Julie of the Chene 30400, A. 11. 

2752 4 yr. 10 mo. 15174.20 827.26 5.45 

Lady Lesbia 25142, A. E. 1348 

Ee-entry 4 yr. 10 mo. 13582.75 787.03 5.79 

Pandora's Valentine of Eich 

Neck 27622, A. E. 1742, Ee- 
entry 4 yr. 9 mo. 14341.00 784.22 5.87 

Glenanaar of the Glen 23019, 

A. E. 1907 4 yr. 7 mo. 10813.10 780.06 4.64 







Summary 


Class 


A. 


1275 


Cows 


Class 


B. 


230 


Cows 


Class 


C. 


337 


Cows 


Class 


D. 


338 


Cows 


Class 


E. 


445 


Cows 


Class 


F. 


533 


Cows 


Class 


G. 


1140 


Cows 



SCALE OF POINTS 

of 4298 Advanced Register Records 

Milk Pounds 

B.F. 

Average 10065.47 494.91 

Average 9009.24 480.22 

Average 9103.39 457-34 

Average 8869.44 445.85 

Average 8220.14 416.75 

Average 7902.34 400.95 

Average 7579.28 379.55 



71 



Av. for 4298 Cows 8752.8'.^ 436.98 

Scale of Points for Judging Guernsey Bulls 

Scale of points Counts 

Dairy Temperament, Constitution — 38. 

Face, lean, clean cut 

Jaw, strong, sinewy 

Muzzle, wide^ open nostrils 

Eyes, full briglit, with quiet gentle expression 

Forehead, long, broad 5 

Neck, masculine, with strong juncture to head 

Throat, clean 

Backbone, rising well between shoulders 
. Spinal processes, large, rugged 5 

Pelvis, wide, arching 

Rump, long 

Spine, wide, strong at tail head 

Tail, long, thin, full switch 

Thighs, tliin, incurving 5 

Ribs, amply and fully sprung, wide apart 

Flanks, thin^ arching 5 

Abdomen, large, deep, with strong muscular and navel 
development 15 

Hide, firm, yet loose, oily feeling and texture, but not thick 3 
Dairy Prepotency — 15. 

Vigor, alertness, style and resolute appearance 15 

Rudimentaries and Milk Veins — 10. 

Rudimentaries, large squarely and broadly placed in front 
of and free from scrotiun 

Milk veins, prominent 10 

Color of Product — 15. 

Skin, deep yellow in ear, end of tail, base of horns, and body 
generally 

Hoofs, amber colored 15 



Per cent 
B.F. 
4.916 
4.997 
5.023 
5.026 
5.069 
5.073 
5.007 

4.992 



Student's 
Score 



72 



GUERNSEYS 



Scale of Points for Judging Guernsey Bulls {continued) 

Studert'd 
Scale of points Counts Score 

Symmetry and Size — 22. 

Hair, a shade of fawn with white markings 
Nose, cream colored 

Horns, amber colored, light, curving and not coarse 8 

Size for the breed, mature bulls about 1500 pounds 4 

General appearance, as indicative of the power to beget off- 
spring with strong dairy qualities 10 

Total 100 

Scale of Points for Judging a Guernsey Cou: 

Scale of Points Counts Student'; 

Dairy Temperament, Constitution — 38. Score 

Face, lean, clean cut 

Jaw, strong, sinewy 

Muzzle, wide, open nostrils 

Eyes, full, bright, with quiet gentle expression 

Forehead, long, broad 5 

Xeck, long, thin, with strong juncture to head 

Throat, clean 

Backbone, rising well between shoulders 

Spinal processes, large, rugged 5 

Pelvis, wide, arching 

Rump, long 

Spine, wide, strong at tail head 

Tail, long, thin, full switch 

Thighs, thin, incurving 5 

Ribs, amply and fully sprung, wide apart 

Flanks, thin, arching 5 

Abdomen, large, deep, with strong muscular and navel 

development 15 

Hide, firm, yet loose, oily feeling and texture, but not thick 3 
Milking Marks, Flow — 10 

Escutcheon, high, broad, wide on thighs with high ovals . . 2 

Milk veins, long, crooked, prominent, branching with 

capacious wells 8 

Udder Formation — 26. 

Udder, full in front 8 

Udder, full and well up behind 8 

Udder, large, capacious 4 

Teats, well apart, squarely placed, of good and even size. . . G 
Color of Product — 15. 

Skin, deep yellow in ear, end of tail, base of horns, udder, 
teats, and body generally, amber color hoofs 15 



QUESTIONS 73 

Scale of Points for Judging a Uucrnsey Cow {continued) 

S tudent'a 
Scale of points ~ Counts Score 

Quality of Milk — 0. 

Udder, showing plenty of substance, but not too meaty G 

Symmetry and Size — 5. 

Hair, a shade of fawn with white markings 

Nose, cream colored 

Horns, amber colored, light curving 3 

Size for the breed, mature cows about 1050 pounds 2 

Total 100 



QUESTIONS 

1. Under what name were Guernsey cattle known when introduced into 

England and America? Why? 

2. What stock probably furnished the foundation for Guernsey blood? 

3. What blood element probably was introduced into Guernsey Island but 

not into Jersey Island? 

4. Trace the Rhine River from Switzerland to the North Sea. 

5. Locate the Channel Islands, Guernsey Island. How large is it com- 

pared with the county in which you live? 
0. What is the color of a well marked Guernsey? What undesirable color 
occasionally crops out? ^^ hat should be done with such animals? 

7. How large is an ideal Guernsey cow? Bull? 

8. What is the disposition of a Guernsey cow? 

9. What should be looked for in the matter of calves? 

10. How much milk and what percentage of fat ought a Guernsey cow to 

yield ? 

11. Compare milk yield and fat grade with Holsteins and Jerseys. 

12. What may be said regarding the color of Guernseys' milk and butter? 

13. What seem to be the particular places into which the Guernsey cow fits? 

14. When and how were Guernseys introduced into America? 

15. What states are now most interested in them ? 

16. When and under what conditions was the advanced registry adopted 

for this breed? 

17. What are the milk and fat requirement for admission into the advanced 

registry ? 

18. Name the cows having the five highest records. 

19. How much did each produce? 

20. Wliat is the record in milk and fat and percentage of fat of the average 

of all the advanced registry cows ? 



CHAPTER X 

THE JERSEY 

The Jersey is the most refined present representative of tlie 
race of cattle which developed in southern Europe. Slie is 
probably related very distantly to the ancient stock of Switzer- 
land. As agricultural development moved northward it is 
highly probable that the animals common in the south were taken 
northward to form the stock of ancient Normandy and Brittany, 
and that these in turn were the source of the stock for Jersey 
Island, which place became the home of the breed that bears its 
name. Little exact information is obtainable regarding the 
manner of handling or the characteristics of the early ancestors 
of the Jersey breed. 

Home Conditions. — Off the north coast of France, in the 
English Channel, there is a little group of islands known as 
the Channel Islands. In order of size, they are Jersey, Guern- 
sey, Aldemey, and Sark. These belonged to i^ormandy before 
the Conquest of England when William the Conqueror, in 1065, 
made his famous invasion. The sovereignty over the islands fell 
to the people who later developed the British Empire. Thus 
we find that the islands, which lie so close to the French coast 
and are j^eopled largely by folk of French characteristics and 
with the French language, still owe allegiance to England. Their 
afifiliation, however, is unique and pennits of certain liberties 
in respect to self-government which are enjoyed by few of tlie 
provinces. 

In 1763 and again in 1789 laws were passed in Jersey Island 
prohibiting the importation of cattle except for slaughter. The 
law has been modified slightly a few times since, but has been in 
force, and been enforced for more than a century and a half 
since, and is still looked upon as an exceedingly valuable law. It 
was done to safeguard the health of the cattle on the island, 
but has been of even greater value in preserving the purity of 
blood and permitting the development of one of the most valuable 
breeds of cattle in the world. 
74 



IMPROVEMENT FROM WITHIN 



75 



The island itself is only eleven miles long, by nine miles 
wide. It has a total area of 36,000 square miles, of which 
25,000 are tillable. The population of 60,000 is engaged 
largely in truck gardening, making a specialty of early potatoes. 
The cow, however, has been given much attention and is an 
important source of revenue. There are about 10,000 cows on 
the island, or one for every two and one-half acres of cultivated 
land. 




I'i . J ■■ !i;i. Oxford y\.<}i 
Note strong back, rugged build 
Horse Farms, Paoli, Pa.) 



A I liaiiiiiii'ii !h;i1i (III J(iM> 1.-1, irid and in America. 
toiiforniity to the dairy tjpe. (Owned by White 



IMPROVEMENT FROM WITHIN 

Early writers on agricultural topics mention the cows of 
the island as being very uniform in every respect; some very 
beefy; some were flat and with but poor constitutions, while 
yet others were fairly symmetrical dairy cows. 

It is evident, however, that the essential merit of the stock 
was recogiiized, since improvement was sought by selection within 
the blood rather than by introduction of such outside elements 
as were obtainable on the continent (Fig. 26). 

Systematic improvement began in 1834 when a score card 



76 THE JERSEY 

was adopted to be used at the second annual fair held by Jersey 
Royal Agricultural and Horticultural Society. This is the first 
record of the application of the score card system in judging. 
The scale of points has been modified from time to time, but 
has served well to bring about uniformity and refinement com- 
bined with useful characteristics. 

The plan of registration on the island is unique. " Cows 
are registered as pedigree stock and foundation stock; bulls as 
pedigree stock only." Within twenty-four hours after a cow 
drops a calf the owner must notify a representative of the 
Department of Agriculture, who must satisfy himself that the 
calf in question was actually born from the cow claimed by the 
owner to be its mother. A certificate is then issued showing 
the birth of the calf. This certificate, together with one from 
the owner of the sire of the calf, is then filed with the secretary 
or the registrar. This is called preliminary registration. Ex- 
aminations are frequently held for the qualifications of these 
registered cattle. If the young animals are gTowing into form 
such as to indicate future high quality they are passed as " com- 
mended " or " highly commended," and those commended ani- 
mals are at two years of age entered in full registry under the 
number and name by which they may be imported to America 
and transferred to the American Jersey Cattle registry. Re- 
jected animals may be entered in examination later and, if satis- 
factory, be approved. 

In the case of males, the dam must be shown and her qual- 
ities are taken together with those of the little bull, and he is 
either rejected or passed, according to quality of both (Fig. 27). 
An individual breeder is not compelled to use fully registered 
sires, but the pressure has been so strong that most of them have 
complied with the judgment of the committee of five ; have dis- 
posed of the rejected animals ; and bred to tlie approved. This 
system has certainly developed a wonderfully uniform and 
beautiful breed. On the island little attention was paid to 
the making of butter records, further than one day tests at fairs, 
until 1912, when milk and butter record keeping, very much as 
the Registry of Merit in America, was instituted. 



BODY CHARACTERISTICS 



77 



The animal has meant much in the development of Jersey 
Island, and is still a potent factor in its industrial affairs. The 
Jersey, like the Ilolstein cow, is pastured at the end of a long 
rope. The forage in Jersey, however, is more scanty and 
richer in character than it is in Holland. This may be due to 
the fact th:it the island is raised nicely above sea level and that 
the north side is considerably higher and more abrupt than the 
southern, thus forming a southern slope which warms very 
rapidly in the direct rays of the sun. The Jersey at home is a 



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Fig. 27. — The champion Jersey bull, Nobles Eminent Lad. 

Talfurries, Texas.) 



(Owned by E. C. Lasater, 



pet, is handled very largely by the women, and is carefully fed 
on grass, parsnips, carrots, and odds and ends from the garden. 
Comparatively small amounts of gTain are fed. 

Body Characteristics. — The color of the Jersey is not looked 
upon as an essential feature of the breed. Consequently, varia- 
tion is found. Some are of a creamy white, while a few are 
found that have large yellow or orange spots in a field of white, 
quite similar to the Guernseys. The majority, especially in 
America, have almost solid color of varying shades, from a light 



78 THE JERSEY 

silvery gray or fawn, through various shades of rich red, to a 
seal brown, almost black. In size the Jersey is one of the small- 
est of the dairy breeds (Fig. 28). Mature cows should weigh 
in the neighborhood of 900 pounds, while the bulls may vary 
between 1300 and 1700. The Jersey calf at birth weighs from 
50 to SO pounds, and though healthy, is quite a baby to raise. 
The Jersey heifer matures at a very early age. Care must 
be taken to prevent too early breeding. The fact that -they 
will breed early is sometimes an advantage, however, in that 
there is a shorter period of unprofitable feeding. The intelli- 
gence of the Jersey cow is remarkable, and her affectionate qual- 
ities endear her to those who love stock. This same quality, 
however, is a disadvantage when she is in the hands of one who 
is rough or boisterous, or generally unfriendly. ^\Tien roughly 
handled the Jersey is more likely to resent the treatment than a 
cow of less sensitive organization. Thus we have conspicuous 
examples of cows which did exceedingly poorly under one man- 
agement that proved to be wonderful producers in the hands of 
another. 

Dairy Characteristics. — The Jersey is the most highly 
specialized dairy cow in America. She is not conspicuous for 
the quantity of milk (Fig. 28), but rather for the rich quality 
of it. The average fat test of the milk of this breed is not far 
from five and one-half per cent, while many individuals produce 
milk with as high as six and even seven per cent fat. During 
the* earlier days of dairying the Jersey was kno^\m as the cow 
for the " butter dairy." Her milk was so rich that only sixteen 
to nineteen pounds w^ould be required to make a pound of butter^ 
whereas twenty-five or more pounds of the milk of other breeds 
would be required to equal it. Xot only is it rich in fat, but the 
globules are comparatively large in size. This fact facilitates 
quick and tliorough creaming by gravity. There will be less 
fat washed in the skim milk, under the old system, with a Jersey 
than with breeds yielding smaller fat globules. The condition 
still remains but its importance is now negligible when the 
centrifugal cream separator is used. The milk of the Jersey 
produces cheese of very rich quality, even more fatty than the 



INTRODUCTION TO AMERICA 



79 



trade generally cares to pay for. A small quantity, however, 
added to tlie milk of the llolstein has a marked improving effect 
in either cheese or market milk. The fact that the globules of 
fat are one-nine-thousandth of an inch in diameter instead of 
one-twelve-thousandth of an inch need not deter any one from 
choosing such milk as an infant food. The percentage and total 
quantity of fat fed a child is so much more important than the 




Fig. 28. — Sophie 19th, of Hood Farm. The champion Jersey cow of the world in 
butter fat production. She produced in one year 17,567 poimds 12 ounces of milk which 
contained 999 pounds 2.2 ounces of butter fat. Note deep body and well-balanced udder. 
(Owned by C. I. Hood, Lowell, Mass.) 

size of the fat globule that the size may generally be neglected 
entirely. ( See chapter on Ilolsteins for more of this. ) 

Introduction to America — Jersey and Guernsey cattle were 
taken to England at an early date and there known as Alderney 
cattle, since they had come from the Alderney or Channel group 
of islands. As early as 1815 cows were imported from the 
Island of Alderney, and in 1818, and again in 1825, animals of 
this blood were brought to America, either from England or, less 
likely, from the Islands. These animals were known as Alder- 



80 THE JERSEY 

iieys, but tlieir blood was not kept pure. They funiislied the 
foundation stock, however, for niTich of the region in the 
southern states. In 1851 a few Jerseys were imported into 
Massachusetts and in 1868 a few animals were brought to Mon- 
treal, Canada. From these importations have descended many 
of the most famous producers in this country. From about 1870 
to 1890 importations were numerous, then for a period few 
■were brought over. At the present time there are several impor- 
tant annual importations. The interests of the breed in America 
are looked after by the American Jersey Cattle Club. It was 
formed in 1868. There have now been registered in America 
al>out 300,000 Jerseys, of which one-quarter were liulls. Jerseys 
are now to be found in every state (Fig. 30) and in practically 
every county of most of the states. The Jersey has a^so been 
introduced into most of the civilized countries, but is most 
popular in England and America. 

Island Versus American Type. — It was comparatively early 
in the improvement of the Jersey breed that representatives were 
first imported to America. These were for the most part handled 
by practical lovers of the breed. Descendants from these early 
importations have been formed into a more or less well-defined 
type usually spoken of as the ''American type," because developed 
in this country. These cows are comparatively large, straight, 
almost coarse, and decidedly plain, compared with the present 
highly finished animal of the island. The majority of the high 
records for production in this country are held by representatives 
of the so-called American type. The island type of Jersey is 
100 to 200 pounds lighter in weight ; very much more refined in 
texture and feature, and is now marked by having a compara- 
tively short head with dished face. These animals are more 
symmetrical than those of older American breeding, not only in 
top line, but also in udder development. While many of the 
large records are held by the American type it does not in itself 
prove that this type is essentially more productive or econom- 
ical. Animals of recent importation have gone more largely 
into the herds of wealthy owners who in the past were not pri- 
marily interested in large milk records or economy of milk pro- 



ISLAND VERSUS AMERICAN TYPE 




1 




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it 

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Fig. 29.— Financial Daisy. A champion Jersey cow. Note deep body, well-balan'^'ecl udder 

tortuous milk veins. (Owned by White Horse Farm, Paoli, Pa.) 
Fig. .30.— Bright Princess Jolly Girl. A prize-winning Jersey cow belonging to Geo T 

Slade, St. Paul, Minn. 

6 



82 THE JERSEY 

duction. This has left the field comparatively open to the 
smaller owTier who is more likely to be a practical milk producer. 
There are likewise a larger number of the American type of 
animals available for contest purposes (Fig. 29). 

Extremes of these two types are almost, if not quite, as far 
apart in character as are the modem Jersey and the refined 
Guernsey. Certain it is that the extremes of the two types 
should not usually be mated, for the same reason that the Jersey 
and the Holstein should seldom be crossed. They are too unlike. 

While the American type is thought to be possessed of 
greater constitution than the more highly refined island type, 
one must be careful that hasty conclusions are not drawn in 
the matter. 

Constitution a Relative Term. — Constitution is the ability 
of the aniijial to do its life work. Constitution is, in part, the 
relation between the power of the heart of the animal to pump 
blood throughout its system and the power of its lungs to purify 
the blood, compared to the resistance which the blood is to meet 
in coursing through the body. A large strong heart working 
against a body filled with fat might be strained far more than a 
heart of only two-thirds the actual power working in a body 
where the arteries are not closely surrounded by fat but are 
elastic and can expand with every throb. With this view of the 
matter we ar^ not surprised to see the angular little Jersey work- 
ing nervily and profitably until 16 and even 20 years of age. 
This matter is even better illustrated in the case of horses. The 
large, well-rounded horse is often outclassed at continued hard 
work by one of a thinner, nervier make-up. 

Beef Characteristics. — This breed has never made any claim 
to true beef-making qualities, nor even yet has there been any 
tendency to make of it a so-called dual purpose breed. Genera- 
tions of selecting for dairy purposes have produced in the Jersey 
an animal wonderfully well adapted to milk production. It will 
fatten readily enough, but does not place the gain where it will 
be most valuable, nor yet is tlie meat of quite so high quality as 
that produced by a breed which has for generations been trained 
for beef production. The fat of Jersey beef is likely to be rather 



IMPROVEMENTS NEEDED 33 

too highly colored for most trade, and is placed in patches and 
layers outside of the muscle rather than being finely distributed 
through the tissue as in the case of high-type beef animals. To 
consider the Jersey cow as worthless for beef, however, is 
incorrect. 

Adaptations. — As a breed the Jersey will produce butter 
fat more cheaply per pound than any other breed. This is due 
to several conditions. 

First, she will consume more feed in proportion to her size 
than will the larger breeds. 

Second, the solid matter of her milk carries a much higher 
percentage of fat and a less proportion of non-fat. When butter 
fat is worth in the neighborhood of thirty cents a pound, the 
sugar and casein of milk are worth four and a half to six cents 
a pound. IS^aturally, therefore, that animal which converts her 
feed into a substance with a higher percentage of the more valu- 
able materials will have the advantage over one which produces 
so much cheap milk solids. This being the case, we must expect 
that on systematic dairy farms where the production of butter or 
cream is the first aim of the dairy and where kindness and com- 
fortable care can be assured, the Jersey cow will be found rather 
more profitable than some other breeds. 

Third, the Jersey is particularly well adapted to meet the 
climatic and feed conditions of our southern states, the common 
stock of which is already largely of the Jersey blood. It would 
seemthatshemightwellbecome the common cow for the southern 
farmer, although the small size of the Jersey need not deter the 
northern dairyman from keeping her, for good buildings can 
make summer temperatures at any season. 

A fourth place for the Jersey is as a town cow. She con- 
sumes less total feed, occupies less space than other breeds, and 
yields enough milk, and that of the highest quality. 

Improvements Needed. — Aside from the common imper- 
fection of form, such as sloping rump (Fig. 31), and of function, 
such as being occasionally only moderately valuable as dairy 
animals, the present status of the Jersey is important, especially 
because of the two more or less well defined but radically differ- 



84 



THE JERSEY 



ent types of pure bred, registered Jerseys on the market, the 
crossing of which is liable to produce very unsyninietrical and 
otherwise undesirable animals. Relief from the situation can- 
not Avell take place until the breeders settle upon some type and 
size as the goal toward which to select and breed. At present 
some Jersey breeders contend for a small, beautiful animal and 
others for a larger, less nervous, even though coarser, lieast. This 
inability to get together on the matter has prevented the extension 




Fig. 31. — A poor nimp and fore udder but a good producer for all that. Rosalind of Old 

Basing. 

of the Jersey to as wide a held as might otherwise have been 
claimed by it. 

Testing System. — In 1884 the system of making seven-day 
tests was inaugurated for the Jerseys. These were made in 
private, and later oath w\^s taken as to correctness. Mature 
cows producing fourteen pounds or more of butter per week 
were found and said, thereafter, to be in the fourteen-pound list. 
These private records, like those reported for the Ilolstein cows 



RECORDS 



85 



during the earlier days of the breed in this country, were prob- 
ably correct, but people naturally had little confidence in them. 
In 1903 the " Register of Merit " was established and the rules 
so changed as to require a verification of the yield, by means of 
the Babcock test. The advanced records of Jerseys are now 
being supervised by representatives of the Agricultural College 
or Experiment Stations of the various states and, like the records 
of the advanced registry of the ITolstein and Guernsey, are as 




Fig. 32. — A champion .Tersev heifer, eighteen monlh.s old. Cupid's Noble rontaiiie. 
(Owned by Geo. T. Slade, St. Paul, Minn.) 

nearly correct and free from error as can well be miade. The 
Jersey requirements for registry of merit are the same as the 
Guernsey. 

Records. — Although the Jersey has been perfected until she 
is a beautiful and affectionate animal, her production has not 
been overlooked. As a breed the Jersey is a wonderfully econom- 
ical and constant producer (Fig. 32). 

" The records of other breeds than the Jersey are sometimes 
computed on the basis of butter eighty per cent fat, instead of 



86 THE JERSEY 

eighty-five per cent. Eighty per cent fat is the legal standard 
of butter in the states of California, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, 
ISTew Hampshire, Ohio, South Dakota and Utah. For the pur- 
poses of comparison with claims made on behalf of cows of other 
breeds, a list of the Jersey pacemakers is appended hereto with 
yields computed on the basis of eighty per cent fat in the butter." 

Thousand-pound Jersey Records 

Milk Fat 80% butter 

Name of cow Lbs. Oz. Lbs. Oz. Lba. Oz. 

Sophie 19th of Hood Farm (189748) .. 17557 12 999 2.2 1240 3 

Spermtield Owl's Eva (193934) 16457 6.4 993 4 1241 8 

Eminent's Bess (209719) 18782 15.6 962 13.2 1203 8 

Jacoba Irsene (146443) 17253 3.2 952 15.4 1191 3 

Olympia's Fern (252060) 16147 13.6 937 13.3 1172 4 

Sophie 19th of Hood Farm (189748).. 15099 6 931 15.5 1164 11 

Lass 66th of Hood Farm (271896).... 17793 11 910 10 1138 4 

Lass 38th of Hood Farm (223628) 15284 890 6.0 1112 15 

Temisia's Owl's Rose (215973) 17056 7 863 12 1079 11 

Lass 40th of Hood Farm (223642) 18661 7 854 14.9 1068 11 

Sophie 19th of Hood Farm (189748).. 14373 3 854 13.7 1068 9 

Olga 4th"s Pride (160791) 16275 13.2 851 11.7 1064 11 

Adelaide of Beechlands (168699) 15572 1.6 849 9.9 1062 .. 

Rosaire's Olga 4th's Pride (179509).. 14104 13.6 836 15.8 1046 3 

Golden Angela (225625) 12795 10 829 4 1036 10 

Warder's Lady ( 195777 ) 14820 1 1 819 15 1024 14 

Rosalind of Old Basing (193202) 15734 12.8 816 1.6 1020 2 

Pearly Exile St. Lambert (205101)... 12345 8 816 1.27 1020 1 

St. Mawes Poppy (219992) 12934 4.8 800 13.5 1001 1 

It should be observed that although the quantity of milk 
yielded is far less than is shown in an earlier chapter for IIol- 
steins, the quantity of butter fat far more nearly approaches the 
production of the other breed. ^N'either is the total quantity 
produced the criterion, since the cost of production is quite as 
important as the yield. The Jersey may be said to be the con- 
verse of the Ilolstein in the matter of milk production. The 
Jersey produces a comparatively small quantity of the richest 
milk, while the Ilolstein produces the largest amount of com- 
paratively " lean " milk. 

Scale of Points. — The scale of points for cows now in use 
for the perfecting of the breed was adopted in 1915 and follows: 



SCALE OF POINTS 



87 



Scale of Points for Judging the Jersey Cow 

Counts 
Dairy Temperament and Constitution. 

Head 7: 

A — Medium size, lean; face dished; broad between the 

eyes ; horns medium size incurving 3 

B — Eyes full and placid; ears medium size, fine, carried 
alert; muzzle broad, with wide open nostrils and 

muscular lips ; jaw strong 4 

Neck 4: 

Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to head 

and shoulders 4 

Body 37: 

A — Shoulders light, good distance through from point to 
point, but thin at withers; chest deep and full between 
and just back of forelegs 5 

B — Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge 
shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up, with 
strong muscular development 10 

C — Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal 

processes ; loins broad and strong 5 

D — Rump long to tail-setting and level from hip-bones to 

rump bones " ■. . . 6 

E — Hip bones high and wide apart 3 

F — Thighs fiat and wide apart, giving ample room for 

udder 3 

G — Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well 
apart, with good feet and not to weave or cross in 
walking ; 2 

H — Hide loose and mellow 2 

I — Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting- 
on 1 

Mammary Development 
Udder 26: 

A — Large, flexible and not fleshy 6 

B — Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between 

teats 4 

C — Fore udder full and well rounded, running well for- 

w^ard of front teats 10 

D — Rear udder well rounded and well out and up behind. . . 6 
Teats 8: 

Of good and uniform length and size, regularly and 

squarely placed 8 



Student'i 
Score- 



THE JERSEY 



Scale of Points for Judyiny the Jersey Coiv {continued) 

Student's 

Counts Score . 

Milk Veins 4: 

Large, long, tortvioiis and elastic, entering large and 

numerous orifices 4 

Size 4: 

Mature cows, 800 to 1000 pounds 4 

General Appearance 10: 

A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a proportion 
of parts to each other, depending on size of animal, 
with the general appearance of a high-class animal, 
with capacity for feed and productiveness at pail. ... 10 



Total 100 

Hcale of Points for Jadying Jersey Bulls 
Head 10: 

A — Broad, medium length ; face dished ; narrow between 

horns; horns medium in size and incurving 5 

B — Muzzle broad, nostrils open, eyes full and bold; entire 

expression one of vigor, resolution and masculinity .... 5 
Neck 7 : 

Medium length with full crest at maturity, clean at 

throat 7 

A — Shoulders full and strong, good distance through from 

point to point, with well defined withers; chest deep 

and full between and just back of forelegs 15 

B — Barrel long, of good depth and breadth, with strong, 

rounded, well sprung ribs 15 

C — Back straiglit and strong 5 

D — Kump of good length and proportion to size of body 

and level from hip bones to rump bones 7 

E — Loins broad and strong; hips rounded, and of medium 

widtli compared with female 7 

F- — Thighs rather flat, well cut up behind, high arched 

flank 8 

G — Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well 

apart with good feet not to weave or cross in walking 5 
Rudimentary Teats - : 

Well placed 2 

Hide 2: 

Loose and mellow 2 

Tail 2: 

Thin, long, reacliiiig tlie hock, with good switch, not 

coarse or hiyh at setting on 2 



Student's 
Counts Score 



QUESTIONS 89 

ticale of Points for Judginy Jersey Bulls {continued) 

Student's 
Counts Score 

Size 5 : 

Mature oulls, 1200 to 1500 pounds 5 

General Appearance 15: 

Thoroughly masculine in character, with harmonious 
blending of the parts to each other; thoroughly ro- 
bust, and such an animal as in a herd of wild cattle 
would likely become master of the herd by the law 
of natural selection and survival of the fittest 15 

Total 100 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where did the Jerseys originate as a breed? Ujion what foundation 

stock ? 

2. What law was most valuable in establishing this breed? 

3. How large is Jersey Island? 

4. Where is it located? Find it on the map. 

5. For what products, other than cows, is the Island of Jersey noted ? 

6. How was improvement in the breed brought about ? 

7. What is the present plan of registration of cattle on the island? 

8. Tell how the Jersey on the island is handled and fed. 

9. What is the color of pure-bred Jerseys? 

10. What are the average sizes of cow and bull? 

11. How large is a Jersey calf at birth.? 

12. What may be said of the intelligence and the aHcction of the Jersey? 

13. When may these good qualities prove a disadvantage? 

14. What quality of milk do Jerseys produce? 

15. How was the richness of Jersey stated before the I?aljcock test was 

invented ? 

16. Under what conditions may tlie larger fat globule be of value? 

17. When were Jerseys first imported into America? 

18. How widely distributed is this breed at the present time? 

19. What is meant by American type Jersey? 

20. HoM' do they differ from the Island type Jersey ? 

21. What precaution should be taken in mating Jerseys? 

22. What is constitution ? 

23. Why can Jerseys produce butter fat cheaper per pound than any other 

breed of cows in America? 

24. What are her particular adaptations? 

25. What improvement is most needed in the Jersey breed? 

26. What is the " register of merit "? 

27. What is the best year's record for a Jersey? What cow holds it? 

28. Compare the Jersey and Holstein breeds. 



CHAPTER XI 

AYRSHIRES 

Origin. — In comparison with the Holstein and Brown Swiss, 
which are virtually the pure descendants of the cattle of an- 
tiquity, or even with the Guernsey and Jersey which are modi- 
fications of the more or less mixed foundation stock, the Ayrshire 
breed of cattle may be said to be " man made." It is the 
youngest dairy breed of importance. In the Shire or County of 
Ayr, southwest Scotland, there lived in the early eighteenth 
century a number of farmers who seemed to have become con- 
vinced that their stock would admit of improvements, and set 
about to do it. The animals of 1750 are described as undersized, 
ill-fed, irregTilar, and as producing but little milk. They were, 
however, extremely hardy. They were undoubtedly the domes- 
ticated representatives of the aboriginal wild cow of that region 
and related to the West Highlands in that respect. In the 
mountains of Wales there are still to be found small black, ex- 
tremely hardy, wild cattle and in England there are still a few 
specimens of an aboriginal wild white cow. During the latter 
half of the eighteenth century there was a strong movement 
towards the improvement of all neat cattle. These cattle were 
improved largely by crossing in other better developed breeds. 
Just when certain bloods were introduced is not accurately 
recorded, but it was evidently the early introduction of the blood 
of the old Teeswater breed, later kno^vn as Durhams, and still 
later more widely known as Shorthorns, that gave scale to the 
hardy little native cattle. At this time the Tecswaters were 
large, rather beefy and not particularly well refined. Their 
cross with the little, nervy, native stock must have produced a 
great mixture of characteristics, for soon, it is believed, there was 
an introduction of breeding cattle from Holland, animals essen- 
tially like our present Holstein. This was evidently done to 
improve the milking qualities, but with such a mixture, the breed 
became too large and lacking in the nimble grazing qualities 
necessary for the Scottish hillside pastures. At this juncture it 
is thought that there was introduced the blood of Jersey char- 
90 



BODY CHARACTERISTICS 91 

acter to add refinement, to reduce the size, and yet to hold the 
milking qualities. The West Highland, Hereford and Devon 
bloods were probably introduced into a few herds, but whether any 
appreciable amount of the blood of the latter has been branded 
down in those animals that formed the Ayrshire is not known. 

Home Conditions. — The land in the country of Ayr, Scot- 
land, rises from the ocean on the west, rapidly into the moun- 
tains 2000 or more feet in height. Though cold in winter, the 
climate is not hot in summer. Plentiful rainfall keeps the 
grass on the clay pastures abundant. Thus the Ayrshire cattle 
were developed under the cool, rugged conditions where grazing 
ability was essential. 

The birth-place of the AjTshire breed of cattle in close 
proximity to the magnificently developed beef breeds of both 
Scotland and England doubtless had its influence in the develop- 
ment of s^Tiinietry and beauty in this dairy breed. And certain 
it is that the Ayrshire breeders have set a pace in the matter 
of beauty and poise of the animal which the adherents of other 
dairy breeds find hard to follow (Fig. 33). 

Importation to America — Early in the nineteenth century 
Ayrshires were brought to Canada and soon after herds were 
established in 'New England. ' Some are thought to have been 
brought to Connecticut as early as 1822. Many of the Ayrshire 
herds of the easteni states are the descendants of these early 
importations. Larger numbers of better developed animals were 
brought over later. Importations are still being made. 

Body Characteristics. — The Ayrshire ranks as a middle- 
weight dairy breed, mature cows weighing in the neighborhood 
of 1000 pounds and bulls ranging from 1500 to 2000 pounds. 
Eor many years the plump foi^m was held to, in the endeavor to 
retain the beef-making qualities along with the dairy. These 
are now spoken of as " tubby " and as being too plump to be 
ideal representatives of the breed. The present ideal for a cow 
is an animal of greater scale, deeper body, and more angularity 
(Fig. 34). The beautiful, straight back, level rump, long rear 
quarters and symmetrical udder are being retained and the 
short teats of the past are being developed past the point of 
criticism. In color-the Ameripan Ayrshire is often a deep red. 



92 



AYRSHIRES 



streaked with seal broAvii, giving a brindle effect, but ranging 
from this to a clear clierrj red and white (Fig. 35). The desire 
for white on the part of the Scottish and Canadian breeders 
became current a few years ago, with the result that the ideal 
animals of the present are three-fourths or more pure white and 
the remaining part a dark red, often assuming a seal broMH 
shade, especially in bulls. The temperament of the Ayrshire is 
pronounced. The timid, yet forceful and active manner of the 
aboriginal wild stock used as foundation stock many hundred 
years ago still asserts itself. Most cows of this breed, though 
not vicious^ are a little hard to handle, because so headstrong. 




Fig. 33. — A (hainpiim ^^^shire Bull, ]?argcnoch Cay Cavalier. Note the beautiful and 
rugged outlines and deep ciiest. (.Property of Adam Seitz, Waukesha, Wis.) 

Their character nmst be taken into account in handling them. 
Their grazing qualities are phenomenally good. Their feet are 
sound, their legs are straight and they are buoyant. Whether for 
hillside climbing or nibbling of the short grass in semi-arid west- 
ern prairies, tlie Ayrshires lead all other breeds of dairy cows. 
The calves at birth are plump, well muscled and weigh about 
seventy-five pounds. They are quick to stand and easy to raise. 
The heifers do not mature very rapidly compared with the 
Jersey, but sufficiently early for all practical purposes. While 




Fig. 34. — A typical modern Ayrshire cow. The deep body and rvgged frame are now 
sought rather than the short "tubby" form. Note the well-balanced udder, good sized, 
well- placed teats, and the large crooked milk vein. 
Fig. 35. — Imp. Ayrshire bull Duchrae Success. (Owned by the late J. J. Hill, St. Paul, Minn.) 



94 AYRSHIRES 

not immune to any of the diseases that afflict cattle, they are 
more nearly free from them than other dairy breeds. They are 
remarkal^le for the regiilarity with which they will breed and the 
number of years that they will keep at work. 

Dairy Qualities. — Most Ayrshires of the present time carry 
too much meat to be pronounced dairy animals, though the 
present tendency is towards the more extreme dairy type. The 
yield of milk is moderate for its grade, though some veiy credit- 
able records have been made (Fig. 36). An average of twenty- 
four animals reported by American Experiment Stations shows 
a milk yield per year of 6533 pounds, having 3.85 per cent 
fat and yielding 257 pounds of fat. 

The advanced registry for this breed was inaugurated in 
1902 with the requirements as follows: Cows two years old or 
under must produce 6000 pounds of milk containing 214.3 
pounds of butter fat. For each day over two years a 0.06 pound 
increase in fat is demanded and 1.37 pounds in milk, with the 
requirement increasing until at live years of age or older she 
must produce 8500 jioiuids of milk containing 322 pounds of fat. 
Bulls scoring 80 points and having two daughters from different 
dams in the Advanced Registry, or without scoring, 54 daughters 
in Advanced Registry, are themselves admitted into the Ad- 
vanced Registry. 

The best ten living Ayrshires with official yearly records are : 

Record Milk Fat 

Name No. Lbs. Lbs. 

Auclienbrain firown Kate 4 27943 23022 917.60 

Garclaugli Spottie 27950 22589 816.25 

Lily of Willocowogr 22269 22106 888.70 

Auchenbrain Yellow Kate 36910 21123 888.33 

Gerranton Dora 2nd 23853 21023 804.79 

Rena Ross 2n(i 25295 18849 713.56 

Jean Armour 25487 20174 774.73 

Netherland Brownie 9tli 23985 18110 820.91, 

Agnes Wallace of Maple Grove 25171 17657 821.45 

Keepsake 2nd 26013 17410 711.27 

The a,bove are certainly very creditable records and indicate 
strongly the probability that with more thorough development 
of the deep body and angTilarity sought at the iiresent time, this 
breed will rival the other daii*y breeds even more closely in the 



SCALE OF POINTS 



95 



future than iu the past in the matter of total production. 
Especially is this indicated by the recent record of 17,974: 
pounds of milk containing 738.32 pounds of fat produced in one 
year by the senior two-year-old heifer, Henderson's Dairy Gem. 
35176, which is the record for all breeds for the age. 




Fig. 36. — Imp. Ayrshire cow, Kilnforn B II L Or uj champion for the breed at the 
National Dairy Show, Chicago, 1913. 

Average of All Adim7>ced licgistrrj Records to November 1, 1915. 

Milk Fat Fat 

Lba. Lbs. Per cent 

657 mature cows 10830 420.05 3.89 

101 Senior 4 yr. old 10281 396.00 3.86 

144 Junior 4 yr. old 9574 378.31 3.93 

176 Senior 3 yr. old S949 3G5.28 3.99 

175 Junior 3 yr. old 8773 344.22 3.94 

277 Senior 2 yr. old 8503 337.32 4.02 

316 Junior 2 yr. old 7478 311.26 3.99 

1846 total cows and heifers 9405 371.88 3.94 



96 



AYRSHIRES 



Adaptations. — It is evident from what has been said that 
the pU\ee for the Ayrshire will, in the future as in the past, be 
found closely associated with the mountainous sections, but that 
in addition she is being; sought by those farmers of our west, 
whose stock must graze on the short grass pastures of the region 
of scanty rainfall. The fact that the Ayrshire has been known 
and advertised as a very hardy cow, doing better under hard 
conditions than most or any other breed, has undoubtedly 
attracted to this breed men who propose to give loose care and to 
subject the animals to hardships. Xo breed could develop 
rapidly under such management. The Ayrshire is a beautiful 
and a useful cow worthy of being kept in greater numbers. 



Scale of Points for .Iu<l<iin<i Aj/rftJiirr f'oivs 

Student's 
Counts Score 

Head 10: 

Forehead, l)ioad, and clearly defined 1 

Horns, wide set on and inclining upward 1 

Face, of mediiun length, slightly dished, clean cut, show- 
ing veins 2 

Muzzle, broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils 

large 1 

Jaws, wide at the base and strong 1 

Eyes, full and bright with jjlacid expression 3 



Ears, of medium size and fine, carried alert I 

Neck, line throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to 
head and shoulders, of good length, moderately tliin, 

nearly free from loose skin, elegant in bearing 3 

Fore Quarters 10: 

Shoulders, liglit, good distance through from point to jjoint. 

but sharp at witliers, smoothly blending into body 2 
Chest, low, deep and full between and back of forelegs .... G 

Brisket, light 1 

Legs and feet, legs stiaight and short, well apart, shanks 
fine and smooth, joints firm, feet medium size, round 

solid and deep 1 

Body 13: 

Back, strong and straight, chine lean, sharp, and open 

jointed ..■-•■ 4 

Loin, broad, strong and level 2 

Ribs, long, broad, wide apart and well sprung ■. . 3 



SCALE OF POINTS 



97 



^cale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Cows [continued) 

Counts 
Abdomen, capacious, deep, firmly held up with strong 

muscular development 3 

Flank, thin and arching 1 

Hind Quarters 11: 

Rump, wide, level, and long from hocks to pin bones, a 

reasonable pelvic arch allowed 3 

Hocks, wide apart and not projecting above back nor 

unduly overlaid with fat 2 

Pin bones, high and wide apart 1 

Thighs, thin, long and wide apart 2 

Tail, long, fine, set on a level with back 1 

Legs and feet, legs strong, short, straight when viewed 
from behind and set well apart; shanks fine and 
smooth, joints firm, feet medium size, round, solid 

and deep 2 

Udder, long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor lleshy, 
firmly attached to the body, extending well up behind 
and far forward, quarters even, sole nearly level and 
not indented between teats, udder veins well developed 

and plainly visible 22 

Teats, evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal 
to half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal 
to one-third the length, length 2^/^ to 3l^ inches, thick- 
ness in keeping with length, hanging perpendicular 

and not tapering 8 

Mammary Veins, large, long, tortuous, branching and 

entering large orifices , 5 

Escutcheon, distinctly defined, spreading over thighs and 

extending well upward 2 

Color, red of any shade, brown, or these with white; ma- 
hogany and white, or white; each color distinctly 
defined. ( Brindle markings allowed but not de- 
sirable. ) 2 

Covering 6: 

Skin, of medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3 

Hair, soft and fine 2 

Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color 1 

Style, alert, vigorous, showing strong masculine character, 

temperament inclined to nervous, but still docile . . 4 
Weight, at maturity not less than one thousand pounds .... 4 

Total 100 



Student'i 
Score 



98 AYRSHIRES 

Scale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Bulls 

Counts 

Head 16: 

Forehead, broad and clearly defined 2 

Horns, strong at base, set wide ajjart, inclining upward . . 1 
Face, of medium length, clean cut, showing facial veins . . 2 

Muzzle, broad and strong without coarseness 1 

Nostrils, large and open 2 

Jaws, wide at base and strong 1 

Eyes, moderately large, full and bright 3 

Ears, of medium size and fine, carried alert 1 

Expression, full of vigor, resolution and masculinity .... 3 
Neck 10: 

Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong in 
the muscles on top, inclined to flatness on sides, en- 
larging synmietrically towards the shoulder, throat 

clean and free from loose skin 10 

Fore Quarters 15: 

Shoulders, strong, smoothly blending into body with good 

distance through from point to point and fine on top 3 
Chest, low, deep and full between back and forelegs .... 8 
Brisket, deep, not too prominent, and with very little 

dewlap 2 

Legs and feet, legs well apart, straight, and short, shanks 
fine and smooth, joints firm, feet of medium size, 

sound, solid and deep 2 

Body 18: 

Back, short and straight, chine strongly developed and 

open jointed 5 

Loin, broad, strong and level 4 

Ribs, long, broad, strong, well sprung, and wide apart . . 4 
Abdomen, large and deep, trimly held up witli muscular 

development 4 

Flank, thin and arching 1 

Hind Quarters 16: 

Rump, level, long from hocks to pin bones 5 

Hocks, medium distance apart, proportionately narrower 

than in female, not rising above the level of the back 2 

Pin bones, high, wide apart 2 

Thighs, thin, long and wide apart 4 

Tail, fine, long, and set on a level with back 1 

Legs and feet, legs straight, set well apart, shanks fine and 
smooth ; feet medium size, round, solid and deep, not 
to cross in walking 2 



Student's 
Score 



QUESTIONS 



99 



locale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Bulls (continued) 

Counts 

Scrotum, well developed and strongly carried 3 

Eudimentaries, veins, etc., teats of uniform size, squarely 
placed, wide apart and free from scrotum; veins long, 
large tortuous, with extensions entering large orifices ; 
escutcheon pronounced and covering a large surface 4 
Color, red of any shade, brown, or these with white, 
mahogany and white, or white; each color distinctly 

defined 3 

Covering 6: 

Skin, medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3 

Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color 1 

Hair, soft and fine 2 

Style, active, vigorous, showing strong masculine char- 
acter, temperament inclined to nervousness, but not 

irritable or vicious 5 

Weight at maturity not less than 1500 pounds 4 

Total 100 



Student's 
Score 



QUESTIONS 

1. Where did the Ayrshire develop? 

2. What blood elements were used in building the breed? 

3. Describe the native home conditions of the Ayrshire. 

4. How have the near-by beef breeds infiuenced this dairy breed? 

5. When were they imported into America? 

6. Describe an Ayrshire cow, as to color, size, temperament, grazing ability, 

outline and general breeding and handling qualities. 

7. WTiat conditions seem to call for the Ayrshire cow? 

8. Is she an intense dairy animal? 

9. What is the best record to date ? 

10. How does the average fat produced compare with the other breeds of 
cattle ? 



CHAPTER XII 
THE RED POLLS 

The Ked Polled cattle are of ancient Englisli origin. 
Whether the foundation stock came from the continent with the 
Scandinavian settlers of Suffolk in the fifth century a.d.^ or 
from some native aboriginal wild stock, will probably newer be 
known. They were developed, however, at a very early period 
in the two counties of Xorfolk and Suffolk in eastern England. 
In JSTorf oik they were beefy and poor milkers, dark red in color 
and hardy. In Suffolk they were of indifferent beef value, but 
considered as very good dairy cows and were without horns. 
The present breed is the result of an amalgamation of the two 
types which was accomplished more than a hundred years ago. 

Home Conditicns. — The home of this breed was on low hills 
and marshes. While the soil was not always of the best, the 
climate was mild and moist, thus encouraging ample pasturage. 
It is natural, indeed, to expect from such conditions, coupled 
with good care, that the animals should grow large, mature 
early and be generally res]ionsive. Such is found to be the case. 

Importations to America — While it is thought that animals 
of the Red Polled stock were brought to this continent with the 
early English colonists at Jamestown, Virginia, because of the 
prevalence in the eastern states of a red muley cow, it is known 
that better developed animals of this breed were imported in 
1847 to Massachusetts. From 1873 to 1887 large numbers were 
brought over. The Red Polled Cattle Chib of America, was 
organized in ISTovember, 1883. 

Body Characteristics. — The color of the Red Polls is a 
solid deep red with an occasional white patch on the udder, 
belly or switch. The size is medium to large, mature cows 
weighing from 1200 to 1600 pounds or more, and bulls from 1800 
to 2400 pounds. As their name indicates, the breed is entirely 
without horns (Pig. 37). In general bodilv make-up tliey are 
not so thick in the neck, back or leg as the beef breeds nor as 
100 



ADVANCED REGISTRY 101 

thin as the more pronounced dairy breeds. They are not so 
angular as many Shorthorns nor as compact as the Hereford. 
The temperament of lied Polls is somewhat nervous but not 
disagreeably so. Calves weigh from eighty to ninety pounds at 
birth, are strong, easy to raise and mature in medium time com- 
pared with other breeds. 

Dairy Characteristics, — From the earliest records the Suffolk 
cattle were known as good dairy cows. It is recorded tliat some 
whole herds, while on good pasture, would average five or six 
gallons of milk per day, while a few of the best cows yielded as 
much as seven or eight gallons per day. The i^orfolk cattle 
with which the Suffolk Avere blended were more on the beef order, 
consequently the modern Red Polls are probably not as free 
milkers as were the old Suffolks. The milk, however, is richer. 

The herd of Mr. Garret Taylor, of England, consisting of 
ninety-eight cows, is reported as averaging 5582 pounds of milk 
in 189G, while in 1895 with eighty-seven cows in corresponding 
condition as to age, averaged 5540 pounds. Lord Rothschild's 
herd at Tring Park, England, has been selected with a special 
view to milk production. Thirty-seven cows, in 1896, averaged 
6937 pounds of milk. In smaller herds more rigidly selected 
for dairy purposes there were even higher yields (Fig. 38). 

In America, until recent years, the breed has been handled 
more largely by beef fanciers than by dairymen, yet some very 
creditable records have been made. At the Pan-American jModel 
Dairy at Buffalo in 1901, this breed ranked fifth in a class of 
ten of the best dairy breeds of the country. Many three-day 
records of three to four pounds of fat per day have since been 
made at various state fairs. 

The Advanced Registry was inaugurated in December, 
1908, In this only yearly records are recognized. " Only such 
cows as have made officially authenticated butter fat records not 
less in amount than 6000 pounds of milk or 300 pounds of 
butter fat in twelve months shall be eligible to advanced regis- 
try." In addition : "A cow to be eligible to entry with descrip- 
tion must scale at least eighty points of the official scale of 
points and must weigh not less than 1100 pounds." 



102 THE EED POLLS 

This last clause witli respect to size and score could well be 
emulated by every otlier breed of dairy cows. 





Fig. 37. — Typical Red Polled bull, Teddy's Best, a champion at many fairs, head of the 
herd at Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minn. 
Fig. 38. — Typical Red Polled cow, Jean Du Luth Beauty (A. R.), World's champion 
Red Polled cow. Record 20,280.6 pounds milk, 891 pounds butter fat in one year. (Bred 
and owned by the Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minn.) 



SCALE OF POINTS 103 

Official Milk Records — Thfe best ten yearly milk and fat 
records for this breed up to Febiiiary 1st, 1916, are as follows: 

No. Name Milk Fat 

31725 Jean Du Liith Beauty 20280.6 891.58 

28991 Jean Du Luth Pear 16598.4 707.24 

24888 Pear 13160.6 603.66 

26619 Flora 12590.0 595.73 

31787 " Jean Du Luth Dorothy 11614.8 571.46 

26378 Diana 2ncl 12622.1 536.80 

28991 Jean Du Luth Pear 13538.4 546.34 

26498 Liza 10807.75 515.25 

11298 Gold Drop 11889.50 510.62 

31726 Jean Du Luth Peach 11357.20 501.08 

The best record by any one herd has been made by the 

Jean Du Luth Fann, Duluth, Minnesota, Avith mature cows as 
follows : 

No. Cows in 
Herd 

1912 26 

1913 24 

1914 24 

1915 20-1 

1915 13^ 



Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Cows 

Student 
Counts Score 

Color Any shade of red. The switch of the tail 

and udder may be white, with some 
white running forward of the navel. 
Nose a clear flesh color. Interior of 
ears should he a yellowish waxy color 2 
Objections: An extreme dark or an ex- 
treme light red is not desirable. A 
cloudy nose or one with dark spots. 

1 Include records of six heifers with first calf and one incomplete year 
of a mature cow. 

* Include only records of mature cows. 



Average Lbs. 
Milk 


Average Lbs 

Fat 


6529 


268.00 


7645 


316.27 


9818 


403.50 


10781 


467.20 


11274 


479.93 



104 



THE RED POLLS 



Head. 



Neck . 



Shoulder . 



Chest 



Back and Ribs . 



Hips . . . . 
Quarters. 



IScale of Points for Judging Red Polled Coics {continued) 

Counts 

Of medium length, wide between the eyes, 

sloping gradually from above eyes to 
poll. The poll well defined and prom- 
inent, with a sharp dip behind it in 
center of head. Ears of medium size 
and well carried. Eyes prominent; 
face well dished between the eyes. 
Muzzle wide with large nostrils 6 

Objections: A rounding or flat appear- 
ance of the poll. Head too long and 
narrow. 

Of medium length, clean cut, and straight 

from head to top of shoulder with 
inclination to arch when fattened, and 
may show folds of loose skin under- 
neath when in milking form 3 

. . .Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, 

coming up level with line of back. . . G 

Objections : Shoulder too prominent, 
giving the appearance of weakness in 
heart girth, shoulder protruding 
above line of back. 
...Broad and deep, insuring constitution. 
Brisket prominent and coming well 

forward 10 

. . . Back medium long, straight and level 
from withers to setting on of tail, 
moderately wide, with spring of ribs 
starting from the back bone, giving 
a rounding appearance, with ribs 
flat and fairly wide apart 1-i 

Objections: Front ribs too straight, 

causing depression back of shoulders. 

Drop in back or loin below the top 

line. 

. . . Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well 

covered 3 

.... Of good length, full, rounding and level ; 

thighs wide, roomy and not too meaty 6 

Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken 
quarters. 



Student's 
Score 



SCALE OF POINTS 



105 



Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Cows (continued) 



Counts 

Tail Tail head strong and setting well for- 
ward, long and tapering to a full 
switch 2 

Legs Short, straight, squarely placed, medium 

bone 3 

Objections : Hocks crooked, legs placed 
too close together. 

Fore-Udder Full and flexible, reaching well forward, 

extending down level with hind udder 10 

Hind-Udder Full and well up behind 10 

Teats Well placed, wide apart and reasonably 

good size 4 

Objections : Lack of development, especi- 
ally in forward udder. Udder too 
deep, "bottle shaped" and teats too 
close together. Teats unevenly placed 
and either too large or too small. 

Milk Veins Of medium size, full, flexible, extending 

well forward, well retained within 
the body; milk wells of medium size 6 

Hide Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick- 
ness, with a good full coat of soft hair 5 
Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry 
hair. 

Condition Healthy; moderate to liberal flesh, even- 
ly laid on; glossy coat; animal pre- 
sented in good bloom 10 

Total 100 

General Description . . . Cow medium, wedge form, low set, top 
and bottom lines straight except at flank; weight 1300 lbs. 
to 1500 lbs. when mature and finished. 



Student's 
Score 



Color . 



Scale of Points for Judging Ped Polled Bulls 

Student's 
Counts Score 

Any shade of red. The switch of the tail 

may be white, with some white run- 
ning forward to the navel. Nose of a 
clear flesh color. Interior of ears 
should be of a yellowish, waxy color 2 



106 



THE RED POLLS 



Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Bulls (continued) 

Counts 
Objections: An extreme dark or an ex- 
treme light red is not desirable. A 
cloudy nose or one with dark spots. 

Head Wide, strong and masculine, relatively 

short. Poll stronger and less prom- 
inent than in cow. Ears of medium 
size and well carried ; eyes promi- 
nent; muzzle wide and large nostrils 12 
Objections: Long, narrow or lacking in 
masculine character. 

Neck Of medium length, full crest, of good 

thickness, strong, of masculine ap- 
pearance 5 

Shoulder Of medivim thickness and smoothly laid, 

coming up level with line of back. . . 8 
Objections: Shoulder too prominent, 
giving the appearance of weakness 
of heart girth, shoulder protruding 
above line of back. 

Chest Broad and deep, insuring constitution. 

Brisket prominent and coming well 
forward 12 

Back and Eibs Back medium long, straight and level 

from withers to setting on of tail, 
moderately wide, with spring of ribs 
starting from the back bone, giving a 
rounding appearance, with ribs fiat 

and fairly wide apart 14 

Objections: Front ribs too straight, 
causing depression back of shoulders. 
Drop in back or loin below the top 
line. 

Hips Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well 

covered 3 

Quarters Of good length, full, rounding and level; 

thighs wide and moderately full, 

deep 6 

Objections : Prominent hooks and sunken 
quarters. 

Tail Tail head strong and setting well for- 
ward, long and tapering to a full 
switch 2 



Student'i 
Score 



QUESTIONS 

^cale of Points for Judging Red Polled Bulls (continued) 



107 



Student's 
Counts Score 



Legs Short, straight, squarely placed, medium 

bone 3 

Objections: Hocks crooked; legs placed 
too close together. 
Rudimentaries Large, wide apart and placed well for- 
ward 12 

Position of rudimentaries 6 

Objections: Rudimentaries placed back 
on scrotum, or placed too close to- 
gether, indicating tendency to trans- 
mit badly formed udders. 
Hide Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick- 
ness, with a good, full coat of soft 
hair 5 

Objections : Thin, papery skin or wiry 
hair. 

Conditions Healthy; moderate to liberal flesh, evenly 

laid on ; glossy coat, animal presented 
in good bloom 10 

Total 100 

General Description . . . Strong, impressive, low set and of good 
carriage. \\'eight 1800 lbs. to 2000 lbs. when mature and 
finished. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Where did the Red Polls develop? How? 

2. What were their home conditions? 

3. When were -Red Polls imported into America? 

4. Describe a Red Polled cow, as to color, form, size, performance, tem- 

perament. 

5. Compare with other breeds. 

C. Is the Red Poll a "dairy" breed? 

7. When was the advanced registry inaugurated for this breed? 

8. What qualities other than amount of milk and butter production must 

cows of this breed possess for admission into the advanced registry? 

9. What is the best fat record for this breed? 
10. What is the best record for any herd? 



CHAPTER XIII 
BROWN SWISS 

The breed of cattle known in America as the Brown Swiss 
is probably the oldest pure breed in this country, if not in the 
world. Their origin is shrouded by the mists of the early dawn 
of the human race in Europe. Though some believe that the 
race is of Oriental origin it is practically certain that animals 
much of the type of the present Brown Swiss have inhabited the 
Alpine region since before human history began. Remnants of 
all sorts of animals and crude tools have been found in the mud 
in the bottoms of. the lakes. There, amid the charred posts of 
the early lake dwellings of human inhabitants, cattle skulls of 
the short, broad type of the present Brown Swiss have been 
found. So far as we are concerned the Brown Swiss cattle have 
always lived where they are now found, in the valleys and on 
the mountain sides of Switzerland. 

Though the Brown Swiss is the most important and by far 
the best known breed in America of all breeds having originated 
in Switzerland, there is another, the large spotted Simmenthaler 
or Fleckvieh breed of more importance in the home country. 
Aside from these two major, some minor breeds or variations 
have developed in the various valleys where the stock has been 
kept for ages with little admixture from without. 

Home Conditions. — Switzerland, that mountainous little 
republic in southern Europe, comprises less than 16,000 square 
miles and of this only about 70 per cent is productive. The hill- 
side pastures are steep, making grazing laborious, but the grass 
growing in patches is usually well watered from the snows above. 
It is the custoin tliere to turn the stock onto pastures as early as 
possible in the spring on the low levels and as the season advances 
and grass becomes green at higher altitudes, the cows are driven 
to pastures up on the mountain side ; later to a yet higher plain. 
They are not brought back daily, but the milkmaid or man fol- 
lows the herd. Every morning and every night the fresh milk 
108 



BODY CHARACTERISTICS 109 

is made into cheese and stored in dairy houses at convenient 
points to be brought down later. With the first cold of the high- 
altitude pastures the cows retreat through a succession of grazing 
places to the vallev, where they go into winter quarters. The 
cheese made from the cows while on the green grass and pure 
water of tlie mountain side is that which has made Switzerland 
famous, and from which a good share of the annual cheese income 
of 26,000,000 dollars is derived. During the long winter the 
cows are fed hay made from the lowland grass, carefully pre- 
served roots, potatoes, and a very small quantity of grain. This 
is usually linseed oil cake. Hundreds of years of life largely 
in the open with the heavy climbing necessary to pasture and the 
heavy work done by cows as oxen have developed in this breed the 
qualities which now make it popular. 

Body- Characteristics. — The Bro\^Ti Swiss is one of the 
heavy dairy breeds, the cows ordinarily reaching 1200 to 1400 
pounds at maturity, while bulls frequently weigh a ton or more. 
( Fig. 39.) They are rather heavy of bone and generally coarse 
in make-up. Their top line is usually reasonably straight and 
the body deep, which gives them a symmetry broken only by their 
unusually broad heads and muzzles. The color of the animals 
of this breed varies from a silvery gray to almost black, the 
dark shade, however, is of a rich brown-black rather than the jet 
black of the Ilolsteins. A light colored strip is usually present 
down the back bone, and yellowish muzzles always present in the 
best marked animals. The disposition of the Brown Swiss is 
one of their assets, it being particularly mild and non-resentful. 
The various qualities differ somewhat, tlie animals raised more 
largely on the higher altitudes have become smaller, and those 
pastured more largely on the lower levels have attained greater 
size. Most cows are also used largely for working purposes as 
well as for the production of oxen and milk. These have 
developed heavy, coarse bones at the expense of both meat and 
milk qualities. 

Calves usually weigh 100 pounds or more at birth, making 
quick gains for veal but maturing rather slowly as cows. This 
may be due in part to the fact that in Switzerland the heifers 



110 BROWN SWISS 

are not bred to freshen until about tbree years of age. Though 
late maturing they are, likfj the Ayrshire, noted for their ability 
to continue at work until old age, 

For a long period of time this breed has been considered in 
the home country a dairy breed but since good amount of flesh 
Avas desired on work animals those naturally were selected which 
perpetuated the meaty thighs and well covered back, rather than 
the more angular dairy type of animal. In America, however, 
the Brown Swiss has been considered in the dual purpose class 
and were so entered at the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1893, at 
Buffalo in 1901 and at St. Louis in 1904, but in 1908 the Brown 
Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association went on record asking fair 
associations to class this breed as strictly dairy cattle, and since 
then the breeding has been tending more strongly towards the 
production of a less meaty animal with better developed mam- 
mary organs and nervous temperament, in short, the refining of 
the breed toward the dairy type (Fig. 40). 

Importation to America. — So far as recorded the first ani- 
mals of this breed to be brought to America were imported in 
1869, by Henry M. Clarke of Belmont, Mass. From Mr. 
Clarke's importation some two hundred or more animals are noAv 
desceaided. In 1882 other animals Avere imported by Mr. 
Scott of Massachusetts, and Mr. Harris of Connecticut. Since 
then various importations have been made until now it is esti- 
mated that ten thousand have been recorded, and that fully five 
thousand animals are now kept in ISTew England, the middle 
west, and Avestern states. 

The jDopularity of the Brown Swiss is due quite as much to 
their rich color and quiet dispositions as to their meat or milk- 
making adaptations. They are so heavy, so strong, and so 
tractable and easy to handle that phenomenal loads are di-awn by 
them as oxen. Animals of this breed are now, and have been for 
years, gi'eatly sought in all the southern European countries, in 
Siberia, Russia, South America and Mexico as draft animals. 
In Mexico there is no draft animal more popular, for there the 
Brown Swiss cow is made to do triple service, to draw the load, 
to yield milk, and her own flesh as beef in the end (Fig. 8). Some 



IMPORTATION TO AMERICA 



111 



breeders in the United States are making a practice of catering to 
the Mexican trade in supplying these triple purpose animals. Of 





Fig. 39.— a champion Imp. Brown Swisa bull.My f;un Bny, belunginm (,, ^ p Alh-n 

Delavan, Wis. ' e ,~ . . , 

Fig. 40.-A champion Brown Swiss cow Belle of Grattan. Note the placid disposition and 
strong frame. (Owned by J. P. Allyn, Delavan, WU.J "»«P°s'"°° ^^^^ 



112 BROWN SWISS 

late years the demand has been so keen for breeding stock that the 
government of Switzerland has felt it necessary to intervene to 
prevent the sale of their best animals to outside bnyers. 

Dairy Characteristics. — Since the Brown Swiss breeders 
have so recently taken decided stand to produce high type single 
purpose dairy animals it cannot be expected that the representa- 
tives will be uniform in their dairy capacity. A goodly number 
of individuals of the breed, however, have done reasonably well 
(Fig. 41). One of the leading herds of the breed belonging to 
E. M. Barton of Illinois is reported as having made yearly 
records as follows : 

2 cows 12,000 to 13,000 pounds milk 

7 cows 11,000 to 12,000 pounds milk 

8 cows 10,000 to 11,000 pounds milk 
4 cows 9,000 to 10,000 pounds milk 

10 cows 8.000 to 9,000 pounds milk 
2 cows 7,000 to 8,000 pounds milk 

The highest amount of fat produced in one year was 513 
pounds, while twenty-three showed a production of over 400 
pounds. The Agricultural School of Plantahof, Fraubuender, 
Switzerland, reported the following from their herd of fifty cows : 

1892 5782 pounds milk 

1893 5500 pounds milk 

1894 6117 pounds milk 

1895.' 6307 pounds milk 

1896 6252 pounds milk 

The aveiagje percentage of fat was 3.77 

F. II. Mason, U. S. Consul at Zurich, reported 6000 cows 
belonging to the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company at an 
average of 5115 pounds milk with 3,68 per cent fat, or a pro- 
duction of 188.23 pounds of fat per cow per year. 

The advanced registry for this breed, called Registry of 
Production, was established in the year of 1911, The following 
are a few of the official records made since that time: 



ADVANCED REGISTRY 

Official Seven-Day Records 

Name Lbs. Milk Lba. Fat 

Naegle 394.2 14.G19 

Hirz 343.4 13.064 

Mary Ann 512.6 12.791 

Vogel 291.6 12.180 

Sunlight 280.7 10.670 



113 




Fig. 41. — Brown Swiss cow, My One Baby, 3378, grand champion for the breed, 
National Dairy Show, 1912, and at the Michigan State Fair, 1913. Record, 15,769.6 pounds 
milk, 595.94 pounds fat. _ 

Best Ten Yearly Records of Mature Bronm Stviss Cows in Registry 
of Production, October 14, 1915 

Name No. Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat 

College Bravura 2nd 2577 19400.6 798.16 

Kaliste VV 2905 16609.2 650.32 

Merney 2859 14674.7 596.94 

Zerelda 2929 14145.9 575.29 

Madam Laughlin 2336 11960.3 522.43 

Doris of Lakeview 3210 12949.3 519.23 

Nellie Bly 2nd 2903 13520.2 511.63 

Bee B 2977 12212.7 .508.97 

College Bravura 2nd 2577 11786.2 500.39 

Betty Brown 2146 11816.4 499.52 

8 



114 



BROWN SWISS 



Adaptations. — From the foregoing it is evident tliat the 
places in wliicli the Brown Swiss will serve better than other 
breeds are : First, where extreme dairy prodnction is not of first 
importance. Second, as a general utility animal in the hands of 
people unaccustomed to the headstrong or active manner of other 
breeds. Third, the grades of this breed resemble very strongly 
pure bred Swiss. Pure bulls effect rapid improvement where 
dual or triple purpose animals are desired. They are a very 
healthy breed and produce very vigorous calves that are 
easily raised. 



Scale of Points for Judging Broirn Siriss Coics 

Counts 

1. Head, medium size and rather long 2 

2. Face, dished, narrow betweeh horns and wide between eyes 2 

3. Ears, large, fringed inside with light colored hair, skin 

inside of ear a deep orange color 2 

4. Nose, black, large and square with mouth surrounded by 

mealy colored band, tongue black 2 

5. Eyes, moderately large, full and bright , 2 

(). Horns, short, regularly set with black tips 2 

7. Neck, straight, throat clean, neatly joined to head, shoulders 

of good length, moderately thin at the withers 4 

8. Chest, low, deep and full between and back of fore legs. ... (5 

9. Back, level to setting of tail and broad across the loin 6 

10. Ribs, long and broad, wide apart and well sprung with thin, 

arching tianks 3 

11. Abdomen, large and deejj 5 

12. Hips wide apart, rump long and broad 4 

13. Thighs, wide, quarters not thin 4 

14. Legs, sliort and straight with good hoofs 2 

15. Tail, slender, well set on, with good switch 2 

10. Hide of medium thickness, mellow and elastic. 3 

17. Color — sliades from dark to light brown, at some seasons of 

tlie year grey ; white splashes near udder not ol)jection- 
able, light stripe along back. White splashes on body or 
sides objectionable. Hair between horns usually lighter 
shade than body 4 

18. Fore udder, wide, deep, well rounded but not pendulous, 

nor fleshy, extending far forward on the abdomen 12 



Student'i 
Score 



SCALE OF POINTS 115 

Scale of Points for Judying Brown Sio-iss Cows {continued) 

Student's 
Counts Score 

19. Rear udder, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy, ex- 

tending well up behind 1"^ 

20. Teats, rather large, set well apart and hanging straight 8 

21. Milk veins large, long, tortuous, elastic and entering good 

wells 6 

22. Disposition, quiet 2 

23. Size, evidence of constitution, and stamina 5 

Total 100 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
10, 
17. 
18, 
19, 

20, 
21. 

22, 



Scale of Points for Judging Broicn Swiss Bull 

Counts 

Head, same as cow 2 

Face, same as cow 2 

Expression, full of vigor, resolution and masculinity 3 

Ears, same as cow 2 

Nose, same as cow 2 

Eyes, same as cow 2 

Horns, same as cow 2 

Neck, of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong 

in muscles on top, sloping symmetrically to shoulders. 

Shoulders large and strong, smoothly blending into body 10 

Chest, same as cow 10 

Back, same as cow 10 

Ribs and abdomen, same as cow 10 

Hips, same as cow 6 

Thighs, same as cow 6 

Legs, same as cow 2 

Tail, same as cow 2 

Hide, same as cow 3 

Color, same as cow. Dark, smoky skins very objectionable 4 

Scrotum well developed and strongly carried 3 

Rudimentary teats, squarely placed wide apart and free 

from the scrotum 6 

Milk veins, same as cow G 

Disposition quiet 3 

Size, evidence of constitution and stamina 4 

Total 100 



Student's 
Score 



116 BROWN SWISS 

QUESTIONS 

1. 'V^^le^e did the Brown Swiss breed originate? 

2. VVliat other breed in Switzerland is of more importance at liome? 

3. Describe tlie pasture conditions and habits of the laome of the Brown 

Swiss. 

4. Describe tlie Brown Swiss breed as to color, size, form and temperament. 

5. What may be said of a Brown Swiss calf at birth? 

6. Is the Brown Swiss a " dairy " breed ? 

7. When were animals of this breed imported into America? 

8. Where are Brown Swiss cattle particularly popular? 

9. Compare the yearly butter yields with other breeds. 

10. What places in American agriculture will this breed fill better than 
any other? 



CHAPTER XIV 
SHORTHORN 

There is probably no other breed of cattle in America that is 
favored by so large a number of farmers as the Shorthorn. Her 
blood is the foundation of much of the common or grade stock 
kept throughout the entire United States, predominating in the 
middle and north central states, yet well represented in the 
herds of New England, the south and the far west. A large 
portion of the milk which has made Minnesota, Iowa and Wis- 
consin well known as dairy states has been drawn from grade 
Shorthorn cows. 

Origin. — The Shorthorn is a breed of old English origin. In 
the northeastern part of the country in the valley of the River 
Tees there was developed by selection and good feeding a strain 
of cattle considerably superior to those in the neighboring dis- 
tricts. Their improvement took place chiefly in the three coun- 
ties of Durham, York and Northumberland. Early in the 
eighteenth century bulls are believed to have been imported from 
Holland by a Mr. Dobinson. Years later his and his neighbors' 
herds were well known for their superiority over the stock of the 
surrounding country which had been more largely descended 
from the native wild animals of the Island or from stock brought 
in during the Roman and ISTorman conquests. 

The real improvers, almost the originators of the breed, may 
be said to have been the brothers Charles and Robert Colling, 
Robert Bakewell, Thomas Bates, Thomas Booth and Amos 
Cruickshank. Mr. Bates bred for milk as well as for beef, while 
Messrs. Bootli and Cruickshank emphasized the meat-making 
quality. To these men and others who followed close after them, 
belongs most of the credit for starting the great improvement in 
livestock which has meant so much in every way, not only to all 
England but to all North and South America, South Africa, 
Australia, New Zealand, and in fact to much of the civilized 
world to-day. Not only was it the cattle produced but also the 
example, the pointing out of the possibility to other men for 

117 



118 SHORTHORN 

other breeds and classes of livestock that made their work so 
lasting. 

Importation to America first occurred in 1T83 by Gough 
and Miller of Virginia, though not under the name of Shorthorn. 
In 1791 and 1796 Mr. Heaton brought Shorthorns to New York 
state, then for the next fifty years importations were numerous. 
During all this time the breed was multiplying rapidly and being 
extended westward as rapidly as the country was developed. 
Thus it may be said that the Shorthorn breed was " in on the 
ground floor " in America, was the cow of the cottagers and the 
frontiersmen. This unquestionably accounts for a part of its 
general favor to-day. 

The adaptability of this breed is excellent. It does well from 
the tide meadows of the Atlantic to the mountain sides in the 
west, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Hudson Bay. 

Body Characteristics. — In color the modern Shorthorn is 
white, or red and white, or roan. The size is large, cows weighing 
at maturity 1300 to 1000 pounds or more, and bulls from 2000 to 
2600 pounds. In build they are generally blocky and broad 
(Fig. 42). Xaturally so, since " all of the really great British 
breeders had in mind the importance of the Shorthorn as a beef 
producer and Cruickshank gave this feature special distinction," 
and since, too, the cattle business of America has until recent 
years been largely one of beef raising on cheap lands with just 
enough milk to funiish the home table. A very large percent- 
age of the pure bred Shorthorns in America, veiy naturally, now 
carry strains of the Scotch or (h-uickshank blood. The calves 
weigh from seventy-five to ninety pounds at birth and are com- 
paratively easy to raise. 

The dairy characteristics of the present American Shorthorn 
cattle are very variable. Those that have been selected for milk 
as well as for beef purposes and have been hand milked show 
considerable of the essential dairy ty})e and are fair milkers, 
while those herds and strains in which the Scotch or Cruickshank 
element ])r('dominates are excellent for beef but lack in dairy 
power. I'he beef Shorthorn, however, gives more milk than some 
of the other beef breeds and for this reason start their calves off 
in excellent shape. Some beef producers prefer the Shorthorn for 



THE DAIRY CHARACTERISTICS 



119 



their calf feeding ability even tliongli they may fall a little short 
in intensity of beef form. It is not claimed, however, even by the 
breed's fanciers that the " milking " Shorthorn can rival the best 




Fig. 42. — A good tvpe milking Shorthorn bull, property of University of Minnesota 

Agricultural College. (Courtesy T. G. Paterson.) 
Fig. 43. — Imported milking Shorthorn cow Bertha, belonging to the late J. J. Hill, 
St. Paul, Minn. Photo by author. 



120 SHORTHORN 

milk breed for milk production nor that highest beef and milk 
production will be found in the same animal, but rather that she 
occupies a mid-way position in the scale, being fairly good at 
both meat and milk production (Figs. 43 and 44). 

The profitableness of such a combination will naturally vary 
with the kind of farming and dairying called for .by conditions 
and the likes and dislikes of the owner. A full considera- 
tion of this question would fill a large chapter in a book on 
farm management. 

Advanced Registry. — With " the aim and object of pro- 
moting the interests of the milking type of Shorthorn cattle " an 
advanced registry called " record of merit list " was established 
by the American Milking Shorthorn Cattle Club which was 
formed in December, 1912. The official beginning of the Record 
of Merit list was May 1st, 1915. 

The rules require that, to be admitted to the record of merit 
list, cows must yield from 5250 pounds of milk containing 210 
pounds of fat when starting the test at 30 months of age, up to 
8000 pounds of milk containing 300 pounds of fat as mature 
cows, five years of age or over. 

Two classes of records are admitted, A, those made offi- 
cially by representatives of an Agricultural College or Experi- 
ment Station, and B, those made by cow testing association 
representatives. 

The first milking Shorthorn year book appeared under date 
of 1915, and contained a goodly number of records. 

The best ten from thirty-three, class B list, are as follows : 

Record of Merit List 

Name Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat 

Rose of Ulenside 18075.2 624.76 

Lulu 12341.4 514.79 

Panama Lady 13779.5 489.46 

Lady Clay 3rd 11928.0 484.13 

Pearl of Silver Creek 10291.3 469.70 

Lady Clay 2nd 10015.6 396.74 

College Moore 9443.0 388.44 

Reward of Nora's Uk 9326.8 385.13 

Harriet 2nd 8691.1 368.82 

Brookside Lassie 2nd 8594.8 354.72 



ADVANCED REGISTRY 



121 




Fig. 44.— Jewel-milking Shorthorn cow, owned by May and Otis, Grandville Center. Pa. 




Fig. 45. — Good type milking Shorthorn cow belonging to W. C. Davis. Che.ster, la. 



122 SHORTHORN 

The average of the thirty-three yearly records reported by 
testing associations is 85.20 pounds of milk containing 332 
pounds of fat, while the 215 private records reported in the same 
volume range from 5500 pounds of milk up to 16,200 pounds of 
milk, fat not recorded. The lactation period recorded for these 
215 unofficial records is from 108 to 365 days with an average of 
344 days. Twenty-nine yearly or lactation periods (omitting 
two unusually short ones) averaged 5600 pounds of milk and 221 
pounds of the fat at the Iowa Station. The fat average was 3.96 
per cent (Fig. 45). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where did the Shorthorn breed originate? 

2. What breeders' names stand out clearly in the history of this breedl 

What did they do ? 

3. When were animals of this breed first brought to America? 

4. What are its adaptations? 

5. Describe a Shorthorn as to color, size, form, temperament and grazing 

qualities. 

6. Tell why Shorthorn cows of this country are so very variable as dairy 

cows. 

7. What is the " record of merit list " ? 

8. How do the ten yearly records compare with other breeds? 

f 



CHAPTER XV 
DUTCH BELTED 

Tpie peculiarly marked breed of dairy cattle known in this 
country as the Dutch Belted, because of their color markings, are 
the production of the skill of the breeders in iSforth Holland. 
Something more than 200 years ago the nobility of Holland for 
some reason fancied cattle of black and white color, but seem- 
ingly chose that the white should be in one piece extending around 
the middle of the animal. In Holland this breed goes by the 
name of " Lahenvelden," which means white field, but is also 
said to convey the idea of the " white body with black ends." 
These animals are, in all probability, closely related to the Hol- 
steins or the descendants of the animals from which the present 
Holsteins have spnmg. The Hampshire hogs of America and 
England, supposed to have originated in Hampshire, England, 
and also the Lahenvelden poultry of England and America, both 
of which have the white band about the middle with black extrem- 
ities, are also, in all probability, the production of Holland skill. 
From a study of the size and general characteristics of the Dutch 
Belted cattle, it would seem evident that considerable difficulty 
had been experienced in the establishment of so odd a marking. 
Ko record is available, however, indicating the amount of in- 
breeding or breeding to physically inferior animals which may 
have been necessary during the earlier days of the establishment 
of the breed. The by-laws of breed associations of the present 
time conclude with : " White spots on an animal other than the 
feet, the belt, and the tip of switch considered a disqualification 
for registry. Color other than black and white or deformed or 
constitutionally defective, considered a disqualification. Beef 
form or absence of milk form emphatically objectionable." 

Importation to America. — Although the breed attracted 
attention in Europe as early as 1Y50 there is no record of any 
having been introduced to America until 1838, when D. A. 
Haight brought over a few animals. In 1848 a second lot was 

123 



124 



DUTCH BELTED 



obtained. These were kept largely in Xew York State, and 
from these have descended a good portion of the animals now 
in America of that breed. In 1810 P. T. Barnnm secured a 
number of Dutch Belted cattle for show purposes but soon 
retired them to his farm in Orange County, Xew York. Within 
a comparatively few years several importers have introduced the 
animals to Canada, Mexico, and Cuba, as well as having brought 
a few more into the United States. At present, though more 




Fig. 40. 



-Champion Dutch Belted bull, Knox Em All, No. 646. 
Covert, Mich.) 



(Owned by E. J. Kirby, 



numerous in the east, representative herds may be found in vari- 
ous i^laces in the sotith and a few on the Pacific Coast. There are 
now about 500 breeders of Dutch Belted cattle in the 
United States. 

Body Characteristics. — Although related to the Ilolstein the 
Dutch Belted breed falls far short of attaining to the same size. 
Mature cows weigh about 800 to 1000 pounds, and the bulls from 
1500 to 1800 pounds. Their color is invariably jet black with a 
white band about their middle. No white is tolerated in the field 



BODY CHARACTERISTICS 




Fig. 47. — Champion Dutch Belted cow, Julia Marlowe, No. 1187. (Owned by Mrs. Jennie 

Strader, Ceres, Cal.) 




"^^K^^^ 



Fig. 48. — Tilma, 1302, a champion Dutch Belted cow. 



126 DUTCH BELTED 

of black, nor black in the field of white. In Holland white feet 
are permitted but they are objected to in the United States. 
They are very striking in appearance (Fig. 46). Their tem- 
perament is mild though not so placid as the Holstein. 

Dairy Characteristics. — Although the Dutch Belted cattle 
are an old breed in Holland comparatively little attention has 
been given to them in America and until recently those that were 
maintained in this country were kept largely for their looks 
(Figs. 47 and 48). The advanced registry for the breed was 
established in May, 1914. Since that time official records have 
been made. A few of the best are here given. 

In one herd, that of the Superintendent of the Advanced 
Kegistry, Dr. II. AV. Lance, Peapack, IST. J., seven cows have 
recently finished a year's work as follows : 

Name Age Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat 

Peapack Anna 4 yrs. 13159 484.31 

Peapack Duchess mature 13065 447.64 

Peapack Pam 3 yrs. 10681 353.17 

Peapack Dawn mature 9345 348.87 

Peapack Prejudice 4 yrs. 9243 328.22 

Peapack Princess 2' yrs. 8745 312.17 

Peapack Polly 2 yrs. 7332 254.33 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the chief characteristic of the Dutch Belted breed? 

2. Where was it developed? How? 

3. When were animals of this breed brought to America? 

4. Where are Dutcli Belted cattle chiefly kept? 

5. How many breeders are there in the United States? 

6. Describe a Dutch Belted cow as to color, size and temperament. 

7. Compare the advanced registry records of this breed with those of 

other breeds. 



CHAPTER XVI 
FRENCH-CANADIAN 

The breed of dairy cattle whicli can, more nearly tlian any 
other, claim America as its home is the one generally known as 
the French-Canadian. Just when the first stock of this blood 
reached America is not absolutely known, though thought to be 
about 1620, or very soon thereafter. At any rate, in 16G5, when 
other animals were brought from Normandy and Brittany to 
Quebec, cows were there discovered having the same character- 
istics as those imported. The stock unquestionably came from 
ISTorthern France with the early settlers in the province of Que- 
bec, Canada. Although there was for many years no particular 
endeavor made to keep the blood pure it did remain essentially 
pure, however, because of the very limited intercourse which 
those pioneers had with the none too friendly English-speaking 
people in the colonies. 

For a period of about 200 years the descendants of these early 
importations have served the pioneers, cottagers, and small 
farmers of eastern Quebec. While sharing tlie pioneer life of the 
people who brought them they developed wonderful hardihood 
and health, and yet retained in reasonably good measure their 
dairy qualities. 

Since 1886 the interests of the breed have been fostered 
and the breed itself materially improved by the French-Canadian 
Cattle Breeders' Association. 

Body Characteristics. — The size of the French-Canadian is 
about that of the Jersey, which breed they so very closely resem- 
ble. Cows weigh from 700 to 900 pounds, though individuals 
reach greater weight, and the bulls at maturity weigh from 1600 
to 2000 pounds (Fig. 49). Though still rather coarse and with 
an unfinished appearance, they are reasonably straight at top 
line, with strong broad hips and deep full chests. Their color, 
though ordinarily termed black, is not a true black in the sense 
of the Holstein, but rather a deep seal-brown-black. They often 

127 



128 



FRENCH-CANADIAN 



tliough not always, have an orange or brownish line down the 
back. The young stock is frequently of lighter color, showing 
nearly a dark orange red. The calves of this breed are exceed- 
ingly hardy and easy to raise, but slow in reaching maturity, but 
like the Brown Swiss and other slowly developing breeds live 
and breed to an unusually old age. 

Dairy Characteristics, — As a breed, the French-Canadian 
cow yields only a moderate amount of milk. Records, however. 




Fig. 4H. 



■Iiatiiinon Fri-ncli-C'anadiiiri bull, Denis Lord, four years old. 
Experimental Farm, Quebec, Can.) 



(Owned by 



of individuals in the herd best managed often show a milk pro- 
duction of 5000 to 6000 pounds in a year and 10,767 has been 
reported authoritatively. The quality of the milk ranks nearly 
equal to that of the Guernsey, a test of 5 per cent being not at all 
uncommon for the animals yielding a medium amount. 

The Advanced Registry, called Record of Performance, was 
established in 1907. The best ten yearly records officially re- 
ported up to April 1st, 1916, are as follows: 



ADVANCED REGISTRY 

Reg. Lbs. of 

Name of Cow No. Milk 

Filie 2!) lU7g7 

Denise-Cliampoine, l;> 31 10140 

Finette 2nd 41 9747 

Zamora 10 7668 

Florida 19 8412 

Aromaz 33 7684 

Inoquette 7 7876 

Morlaisienne 24 7794 

La Belle 8 7196 

Maid of Two Mountains 39 6947 



129 



Per cent 
Fat 


Lbs. ol 
Fat 


4.20 


453 


4.07 


413 


4.13 


403 


5.25 


403 


4.81 


403 


5.02 


386 


4.80 


378 


4.70 


366 


4.96 


358 


4.95 


344 




Fig. 50. — A chaini^ion French-Canadian cow. Fortune 4th, d'Uttawa 946. Record, 
one year, milk, 9135 pounds, test, 4.67 per cent fat, 428 pounds. (Courtesy Dominion 
Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.) 

Requirements for Admission into Record of Performance 

Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat 

Mature cows 6800 306 

Four year old class 6000 270 

Three year old class 5200 234 

Two year old class 4400 198 

9 



130 FRENCH-CANADIAN 

This breed has the hardy qualities of the Ayrshire, with the 
added advantage of yielding a richer milk and of being both 
easier to handle as animals and more conveniently milked. Their 
teats are universally large and well placed. 

The French-Canadian cattle are aptly said to be the " Jerseys 
of the north." Their place in the eastern provinces is very sim- 
ilar, indeed, to the one occupied by the Jersey farther south. 
They should be looked upon, however, as a " breed in the rough." 
With the excellent foundation possessed, however^ there is no 
reason why, if skillfully bred and handled, the breed should not 
become refined and still retain a highly economic place. While 
there is little reason why this breed should be introduced seri- 
ously into the United States to satisfy any special need, there is 
good reason why it should be retained and developed in Quebec, 
Canada, and there continue to serve mankind (Fig. 50). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliat breed of dairy cattle can claim America as its home? 

2. Under what circumstances were the ancestors of the French-Canadian 

breed brought to this country? 

3. From what country did they come? 

4. Describe a French-Canadian cow as to color, size, form and disposition. 

5. Discuss the dairy qualities of this breed, 

6. Compare records with other breeds. 

7. What may reasonably be expected of the French-Canadian breed? 



CHAPTER XVII 
MILCH GOATS 

The goat has been one of the faithful servants of man since 
the dawn of history, and still continues as the efficient converter 
of weeds, brush and various grasses into nutritious milk for 
infant or adult, or into strong wool or mohair for garment or rug 
making, or into savory flesh for food. Whether goats were 
domesticated and developed at a period earlier than cattle is not 
accurately kno^\aij but it is highly probable that such was the case 
because of the fact that they are smaller and milder in disposition. 

Milch goats are nearly, if not quite, as common in most of the 
countries of Europe as are dairy cows. They have been devel- 
oped to high points of usefulness in many separate sections of tlie 
country, though those best known in America (Fig, 51) are 
the descendants of one or more of the breeds which originated, or 
were improved in Switzerland. But in northern Africa, Russia, 
I«[orway, Germany, France and Spain, milch goats are to be 
found. They have likewise been introduced into other sections 
of the world and now occupy a small but useful place in most of 
the Spanish-American countries. 

The Goat Maligned. — There is probably no single animal in 
America which has been the butt of more common jokes than the 
goat. This is probably due to the fact that most of the goats 
known in our villages and cities are of the common, scrub sort 
which are thought to be the inferior descendants of those brought 
to Mexico by the Spanish in the early days. They are about as 
much like the modem pure bred milch goats as old Texas range 
cattle are like Jerseys. The class of animals kept for the pur- 
pose of cheese making, largely in foreign countries, is scarcely 
known in America. The fact that the goat is spoken of as the 
" poor man's cow " certainly does not encourage their being more 
generally kept. The term is far from apt in America, however, 
for the reason that a good milch goat costs as much as a good 
cow. In view of the general attitude toward this animal they 

131 



132 



INIILCH GOATS 



should be called, rather the " brave man's cow." The humble 
position held by this animal in America is not warranted by sci- 
entific findings nor yet by practical experience. 

Dairy Type in Goats. — It is certainly more than a coinci- 
dence that the type of the animal, developed through long ages 
of experience, which is found to be the most profitable as a milk 
producer possesses a type essentially very similar to that known 




Fig. 51. — Imp. Fanette, No. 151, the champion milk producer of the Toggenburg 
breed in America. She produced in one year 2680 pounds of milk, or nearly twenty times 
her own weight. Note that she possesses the essentials of the dairy type. (Reproduced by 
courtesy of " Littlelands in America," San Francisco, Cal.) 

as the dairy type in cows. The Saanan doe represented in 
fig-ure .54, and the Toggenburg doe, another Swiss breed, shown in 
figure 52, agree essentially with the Spanish Maltese and with 
the African ISTubian and show tlie extreme dairy type. 

A study of these types reveals the presence of a large capacity 
for food consumption coupled with the angularity and loose con- 
struction of frame work which are essentiallv different from the 



TOGGENBURG 



133 



form best adapted for meat production. It will be remembered 
that tlie compact animals, whether cattle, horses, hogs, or 
sheep, are known to be the '' easy keepers," which means " easy 
fatteners." Coupled with the capacious body and thin angular 
muscular development, the immense udder development will 
be observed. 

Breeds. — Goats, varying in type all the way from the com- 
pact form of the mutton and wool producing varieties to the 
thin, angular, strictly dairy goats, are to be found in many sec- 

Vu, -?. . Fig. 53. 




1 iij. oJ,. — luiiiiu-, ihc Toggenburg prize doe. Note wonderful development of udder. 

(Courtesy the owner, Winthrop Rowland, Redlands, Cal.) 

Fig. 53. — A well-marked Toggenburg doe. 

tions of the country and are known by a great variety of names. 
The various breeds have not yet been classified and studied as 
have the diiferent races and breeds of cattle. The following are 
brief descriptions of the dairy goats best known in America : 

Toggenburg, — This breed originated in the Toggenburg 
Valley of Switzerland, in the northeast section of the republic. 
They are of mediiun size, weighing in the neighborhood of 125 
pounds at maturity, rather slender, hornless, and short-haired. 
Their color is a peculiar shade of brown or mouse color with 
white markings, distributed with great regularity. The legs 
below the knees and hocks should be white, and a white strip runs 



134 MILCH GOATS 

down either side of tlie face and around the ears (Fig. 53). They 
are hardy, gentle, and tractable and are said to yield four quarts 
of milk per day when fresh. 

Saanen. — This pure white breed was originated and is now 
kept in the Saanen Valley in Switzerland. It is a breed of com- 
paratively large animals, a mature doe occasionally weighing 150 
pounds. They are hornless and being short-haired their ang-ular 
form is prominent (Fig. 5-i). The quantity of milk accredited 
to this breed is from three to four quarts per day with isolated 
cases of five to six quarts, though two or tliree quarts would 
probably be more nearly an average for the nine to twelve 
months of lactation period or about 1800 pounds of milk for 
the year, 

Spanish Maltese. — This animal from the Island of Malta is 
of two varieties, the short-haired and the long-haired. This is 
the breed which has been so extensively introduced into Mexico 
and other Spanish-American comitries, and the one from which 
our common goat was probably descended. Some varieties of this 
breed grow horns, while others do not. They are about the size 
of the ordinary Angora, and are better adapted to warm than to 
cold climates. Their milking proclivities vary . considerably 
with the breeding. 

Milk Records. — A goat which gives less than a quart a day is 
not to be considered a good milch animal. If it yields two quarts 
it is a good animal, provided the period of lactation is nine 
months or more. In the European countries the goats which 
yield from three to five quarts a day are numerous and the period 
of lactation is a long one (Figs. 51 and 54). 

It is a good goat of any breed that will average two and one- 
half quarts (5.25 pounds) of milk a day for eight or nine 
months of the year. One that will give more than this is 
specially desirable. The Angora goat, which is not considered a 
good milch animal, gives froan two to three quarts of very rich 
milk but for a comparatively short time. The ISTubian, or Afri- 
can, produces from five to ten quarts per day. The yield of the 
best goats of Switzerland averages about four quarts daily. This 
amount is not produced without good care and feed, however. 



MILK RECORDS 135 

The yield of milk varies greatly as with, cows, between breeds 
and individuals. Dettweiler reports the yields of twenty-four 
for a year as follows : 

9 gave 1200 — 1400 pounds 
7 gave 1400—1600 pounds 
4 gave 1600—1800 pounds 
1 gave 1800—2000 pounds 
3 gave 2000 — over pounds 




Fig. 54. — Milch goat of the Saanan breed which produced 1845 pounds of milk in one 
year at the New York (Geneva) Experiment Station. 

Individuals are reported which have produced as much as 
2400 pounds of milk, testing about 4 per cent fat or 96 pounds 
butter fat in oile year. This would make about 115 pounds of 
butter or 240 pounds of cheese. 

The Toggenburg doe, Geneva, reported by the California 
Experiment Station, was Grand Champion at the recent Panama- 
Pacific Exposition. She weighs on an average 127 pounds and 
in 312 days yielded 2158 pounds of milk containing 72.8 pounds 
of fat and 256.34 pounds total milk solids. Two others tested 
for a year yielded less. One half-breed, Delia, weighing only 
104 pounds, produced only 1283 pounds of milk and 49.73 
pounds of fat in a single lactation period of 310 days; and 
Hedda, a pure bred Toggenburg, two years old, produced 1118.0 
pounds of milk containing 40.7 pounds of fat. 

The 'New York (Geneva) Experiment Station has tested a 
few milch goats for infant feeding purposes. One Saanan doe 
gave 1845 pounds of milk in one year on $15.82 worth of feed, 



136 MILCH GOATS 

charging $3 for pasture. This is about 922 quarts, at a feed cost 
of about 1.7 cents per quart. 

The Toggenburg doe, Fanette (Fig. 51), is one of the best 
known milch goats in x\nierica. She produced, in one year, 2680 
pounds of milk, or nearly twenty times her own weight. This is 
more than half as much as the average cow of this country pro- 
duces. It was enough milk to supply two families with two 
quarts per day each for a year. It would make about 100 
pounds of butter or 2 OS pounds of cheese. This milk, if sold 
at 25 cents per quart, would bring $335. In some places goat's 
milk sells at 50 cents per quart. 

Milk Records 

Breed of Goat Name Wt., Lbs. Milk 

Toggenburg Fanette 136 2080 

Toggenburg Geneva 127 2158 

Toggenburg (half breed) . .Delia 104 1283 

Toggenburg Hedda ( 2 yr. old ) 119 1118 

Saanan (at Geneva, N. Y. ) 1845 

The Nature of the Product. — Goat's milk-fat produces 
rather an inferior butter, especially in color, body and grain, but 
the milk is said to be remarkably valuable for feeding delicate 
infants. Milk for such purpose often sells for 25 to 50 cents per 
quart. It also serves as a household milk supply, for cooking 
purposes as well as milk for direct consumption. 

Composition of Goats' Milk, 

Authority Water Fat Casein and Albumen 

Renesse 85.50 4.80 5.00 

Landwintli 85.00 4.00 4.80 

Hoti'man 80.19 4.73 3.G8 

X.Y. (Geneva Sta.) 87.88 3.82 3.21 

It has been shown that the milch goat will yield a food unit in 
milk solids fully as economically as a good dairy cow, if not more 
so, for the feed consumed and has the added advantage in relish- 
ing various edible weeds. She also may be pastured on so small 
a lot or pasture that but for her all of the forage on that area 



Sugar 


Ash 


4.00 


.70 


4.30 




4.50 


.90 


4.54 


.55 



QUESTIONS 137 

would have gone to waste. The milch goat is now especially 
needed about the mill towns of New England and the south, 
and about mining towns in all sections of the country. The 
State Experiment Stations of California and Geneva, ISTew 
York, and the United States Department of x\griculture are 
studying the question of milch goats. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is our oldest record of the use of goats as milch animals? 

2. Where were most of the hreeds of milch goats in America developed? 

3. Why are goats not more used in this country? 

4. Compare the dairy type of the milch goat with that of an intense 

dairy cow. 

5. Name and describe the two principal breeds of milch goats. 
0. How much milk will a good goat yield? 

7. Name the milch goat that now holds the United States Championship 

for production. How mucli did she yield? 

8. How does the composition of goafs milk compare with cow's milk? 

9. For what is it especially valuable? 

10. In what regions and sections are goats most needed in America? 



CHAPTER XVIII 
STARTING A DAIRY HERD 

The solution of the problem confronting any young man 
who contemplates starting a herd of cows to be used for dairy 
purposes will very natui*ally differ with local circumstances, but 
assuming only moderate means and the necessity for getting 
profitable working stock at the earliest time possible, the follow- 
ing method will generally be found the most profitable : 

Foundation Stock. — If the prospective dairy farmer has no 
animals of any sort and is, therefore, free to select, it is highly 
import,ant that he bear in mind clearly the thoroughly proven 
value of the dairy type animal, that is, the one showing capacity 
for the consumption of feed, with spare and angular form, denot- 
ing absence of too great a flesh-forming tendency, with udder 
and milk veins developed adequately to balance the other parts 
of the body and an alert temperament and good constitution. 
The purchaser should not overlook the fact that the qualities 
desired are more likely to be found and far more likely to be 
transmitted to future workers if grades of some of the standard 
dairy breeds are selected. 

The prospective dairy farmer who already has on hand a 
herd of good, fair, and indifferent grades of no particular breed- 
ing, should bear in mind first, that it is a very poor cow indeed 
which is not better than no cow at all on the farm; that cows 
vary tremendously in their ability to return profit, and that life 
is too short to make it wise to plod along with the inferior cow 
any longer than is necessary to secure animals of higher quality. 
Working on this basis, therefore, the one starting in the business 
with a mixed herd of unknown quality should keep the animals 
ho has until such time as he has good evidence to prove that 
certain members of the herd should be disposed of and raise his 
stock from the better half of the herd. To improve such a herd 
a strong-blooded bull of the breed desired should be placed 
at its head. 
138 



SELECTION OF THE BULL 139 

The Jersey cow, if well liandled, will produce butter fat more 
cheaply per pound than any other breed in America, but being 
sensitive to treatment and best adapted to a moderate climate she 
requires comfortable housing. When such is provided, how- 
ever, the Jersey may be kept in any agricultural region. 

The Holstein cow ordinarily yields more fat and a much 
ereater amount of skim milk. While it is true that the cost 
of producing a pound of fat is higher than with the breeds yield- 
ing a richer milk, it is likewise true that the skim milk has high 
value on the livestock farm. The animals of this breed are 
rather better adapted to withstand the conditions practically 
certain to obtain on farms where the field operations are of first 
consideration. The Holstein animals work in exceedingly well 
on those farms which produce grain and hogs as well as cream 
or butter for the market. 

The Guernsey and Ayrshire breeds have their peculiarities, 
as explained in the chapters on those breeds, and which fit them 
for particular niches. The temperament and sentiment of the 
individual farmer certainly are of importance in the choice of a 
breed, but in the opinion of the writer these more or less 
sentimental facts should be subordinated to the adaptability of 
the breed to the climate, to the type of dairying to be carried on, 
and in practice to the majority sentiment of the neighborhood. 
It is being everywhere clearly demonstrated that animals of all 
breeds have developed not only greater individual qualities in 
those communities where a goodly number of that breed is kept, 
but that they also have greater market value per unit of quality. 
The individual cows of a Holstein herd, for instance, located in 
a Jersey neighborhood would not have the market valiTe that the 
same animal would if surrounded by animals of their own breed. 
The same is true of all the other dairy breeds when too 
Avidely scattered. 

Selection of the Bull. — In starting a herd of working dairy 
cows there is probably no single problem of greater importance, 
nor one which offers greater difficulties, than the correct selec- 
tion of the herd bull. With a herd of low-producing animals in 
the hands of an owner of limited means, it is not infrequently 



140 STARTING A DAIRY HERD 

wisest, and in the long run most economical, to purchase a high 
grade bull, not any high grade, but one which shows the breed 
characteristics strongly, has individual vigor and constitution 
and is from a high-producing dam. The fact that cows with 
which he is to be mated can never produce stock for registration 
makes it entirely immaterial whether the sire has " papers " or 
not. The use of a grade sire is not recommended on cows of 
higher development and not where pure animals may be pur- 
chased at reasonable figures. Frequently second-hand, pure bred 
bulls may be purchased at beef prices. Young animals, especially 
of the Guernsey breed, are occasionally sold cheaply because of 
having a " smoky " frill about the muzzle, or having more or 
less dark hairs about the head and throat. This is supposed to 
indicate partial reversion to some prehistoric ancestor and since 
it is not the color desired in the modern breed such animals do not 
become show animals themselves, nor are they likely to produce 
such. Some of tlie strongest working blood of the breed, how- 
ever, are characterized by this oflf-color. Fanners desiring pure 
Guernsey stock to work upon a grade herd will do well to look for 
such animals. Pure bred ITolstein bulls are occasionally pure 
white and can therefore not be registered. Such would mate 
well with a herd of red and white grades. 

It is agreed that the points to be looked for in selecting an 
animal are constitution, thrift, masculinity, and trueness to 
breed type, or in other words the individuality of the animal 
(Fig. 55). The next point, one which some breeders would 
put first, is the matter of record or power of perfonnance on the 
part of the dam and granddam, and as many other generations 
back of this as possible. Such an animal then in addition to 
having the prepotency of pure blood will have the strong individ- 
uality, or what may be termed personality, which will increase 
the likelihood that his daughters will resemble his mother and 
grandmother in ability to produce abundantly. A goodly num- 
ber of instances are on record indicating that some sires have 
possessed such wonderful prepotency as to have almost unlimited 
value, while other animals have done positive hann under the 
same or similar conditions. 



COMMUNITY BREEDING 



141 



The ideal pedigree must show performance as well as mere 
relationship. The following Guernsey pedigree is considered a 
good one in this respect: 

Larger records have been made than those indicated in the 
pedigree, yet those are good, and the fact that uniform high 
milkers are on both sides increases the likelihood that the prog- 
eny of May King of Linda Vista will be strong, consistent 
producers. 




Fig. 55. — Starlights Excelsior of Jean Du Luth, a champion Guernsey bull. A very 
promising type to use as head of a herd. (Courtesy G. P. Grout, Duluth, Minn.) 

Community Breeding. — One income from the keeping of 
pure bred cows is the increased amount of milk, butter and by- 
products obtained from them, but a second profitable source of 
revenue is the sale of breeding stock. At present there is a good 
healthy demand for more livestock to be shipped into the north- 
west section of the United States and western Canada. Farm 
conditions in these regions call for cattle. Those communities in 
which there are a goodly number of animals of any recognized 
breed are finding more ready sales at high prices for surplus 
stock than those individual breeders more or less scattered. 



142 



STARTING A DAIRY HERD 




<3 > ao2 ja iH 5 



COMMUNITY BREEDING ASSOCIATIONS 143 

Many communities throughout the country have almost uncon- 
sciously, and certainly without concerted action, raised so many 
animals of the same breed that the farmers are now reaping the 
benefit very positively. So keen is the demand now for improved 
livestock and the advantage to the buyer of being able to select a 
dozen or a carload in one community that in a large number of 
places the farmers are organizing cooperatively to produce more 
desirable stock in greater quantity. 

Community Breeding Associations. — Organized, well de- 
fined efforts have the advantage over the old system of encour- 
aging each man to act independently, while the community 
drifts, in the following respects : 

First. A larger number of improved animals are secured 
in much less time. The years required to raise, develop and try 
out a cow are about 10 per cent of the fannei-'s working lifetime. 

Second. \Vhere a dozen or more of the best farmers in any 
neighborhood lead off in breeding definitely they become more 
keenly interested in their livestock, take better care of the ani- 
mals and, through the fact of better care, derive an additional 
income. 

Third. High class breeding sires may be purchased for less 
money per man when purchased for community use. The econ- 
omy also is increased, because when the sires have worked a 
period of two years in any community they may be systematically 
exchanged with little loss. 

Fourth. The surplus grade stock not only rapidly takes the 
place of the older cows, but also accumulates in such number as 
to attract outside buyers. Another advantage noticed is that 
the farmers who begin the matter of improvement in one line 
of stock seldom are satisfied until all the classes of livestock 
and field crops too have been studied for the purpose of 
improvement. 

The great advantages of a comparatively close organization 
over the looser methods of conducting this business may be briefly 
summarized as follows: A well organized committee attracts 
farmers' institute speakers and other community workers. Thus 
the individual members have greater opportunity than they 



144 STARTING A DAIRY HERD 

would likely have otherwise. The national and state associa- 
tions representing the breed kept are more likely to send litera- 
ture and lecturers. Another feature occasionally found highly 
valuable is in the control of the character of the deals made by 
some of the members, where the association guarantees stock sold 
and expels members selling animals of known sterility or with 
a disease. Such has been found excellent advertising and highly 
profitable to the farmers of the community. 

Disadvantages of Community Breeding. — Probably the 
greatest single drawback to community effort is tlie possibility 
of introducing and disseminating diseases, most particularly, 
infectious abortion. Though this fact should be borne in mind 
continually in purchasing and in exch'mging sires, those com- 
munities which have for five or more years carried on work of 
tliis sort have not experienced serious difficulty. The incon- 
venience and loss of time entailed in taking a cow some distance 
for service are sufficient to deter some from joining the associa- 
tion though often owning animals of the same breed. In some 
communities exchanges are made between the individual and the 
associated breeders. The individual ownership of bulls has its 
advantages. There is nothing to prevent the two systems work- 
ing in harmony in the same community. The object especially 
is to increase the number of high class animals as quickly as 
possible without great expense and then the organized selling of 
surplus stock. 

Selection of the Individual Cow. — It must be ever remem- 
bered by the breeders of livestock that the laws underlying repro- 
duction are at best but poorly understood and difficult of control. 
After all the care bins been taken which would seem possible or 
wise, individual members of the herd will, for reasons apparent 
or obscure, fail to develop into sufficiently profitable cows. The 
wise dairymen will watch for these variations, both that he may 
eliminate the inferior, and that he may increase his herd from 
the most valuable animals. 

Variation is opportunity for progress, but the inferior indi- 
vidual must not boused as a propagator of others or the opportun- 
ity will be lost. While the causes of variation are obscure, the 
fact of variation is evident. 



THREE DAY RECORDS 145 

Daily Records. — Farmers have for years been advised to 
keep daily records of the quantity of milk produced by their cows 
and to test sufficiently often to know approximately how much 
fat is being yielded by each cow. The system entails consider- 
able attention and some labor, but where given a fair test is found 
to be a paying investment. The form of the record sheet used 
for such is similar to the sample shown. This record is designed 
to accommodate twenty cows for a week but may be extended to 
include the production of a month if desired. The form here 
shown is that adopted by the Dairy and the Extension Divisions 
in the University of Minnesota. The complaint is often made 
that to weigh the milk twice a day consumes so much time that 
more is lost than gained in the process. This criticism, how- 
ever, is made by those who have never tried it. The advantage 
of sytematically weighing every milking over a period of three 
days a month is that in addition to determining the production 
of the cow the added value of having what may be termed a ther- 
mometer of the business is at hand. Many items, such as 
scarcity of water in the pasture, short, dry grass, presence of 
flies, bad hay, cold rains, or poor milkers, have a decided influence 
upon the profitableness of the dairy enterprise, yet may not be 
noticed for a week or more uiiless there be at hand a record of 
production. Some cow keepers have continued the daily records 
after becoming convinced that all the co>vs in the herd are profit- 
able, purely for the eft'ect of rivalry created among the milkers. 

A sheet sununarizing by months the work done by the cows 
for the year will be found highly advantageous. Sample of the 
sheet used in Minnesota for this purpose is shoAvn on page 146. 

Three Day Records. — At times the labor involved in daily 
weighing seems so great that the farmer decides not to commence 
testing. To such the system of weighing the milk on the middle 
three days of each month is recommended. The yield for the 
month is calculated by multiplying by ten the yield for the three 
test days. This system requires scarcely 10 per cent of the labor 
involved by the daily weighing system and its accuracy is found 
to be about 96 per cent. This is more accurate than usual records 
kept of other farm operations. \\Tiere the fat test is made 
10 



146 



STARTING A DAIRY HERD 






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YEARLY SUMMARY 



147 



from a sample composited from the six milkings there is no 
reason why this system should not be fully as accurate as those 
now in vogue with most of the pure bred cattle associations in the 
making of semi-official yearly records, where the herd is visited 
only two days each month by the official representative. 

The three-day system of record keeping is best carried out by 
ruling a cheap day book. The books recommended are those 
about five inches wide by a foot long, and cost 10 cents. The 

yEAf?Ly SUMM/IRy. 



M£ffD OF 












MINN. 


FROM 




19 , TO 




/9 




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M/LH 


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AVERAGe 














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advantages of this volume are that it is too large to be easily lost, 
yet sufficiently small to be handled, and when ruled as indicated, 
one writing of the cows' names will suffice for a year. The book 
is sufficiently large to contain the records of thirty cows for seven 
years if desired. It is recommended, however, that in the latter 
half of the book each cow be given a page upon which are recorded 
all important events affecting her during the year, such as date of 
service ; date due to calve and trouble, if any. One volume per 



148 STARTING A DAIRY HERD 

year kept in a convenient place in the stable will be f onnd liighly 
valuable and worth many times its cost. 

Permanent Records. — It is unwise to keep the pennanent 
records on scraps of paper or in pocket-sized books. 

A book of 200 pages, each page about five by twelve inches, 
can be purchased for ten cents. Each page will hold the record 
of thirty cows for a month. The names or numbers of the cows 
should be written down the left margin of the left-hand page, 
then niled up as shown below. 

The names need not be written on the next page but it 
should be ruled so that the outer third of the leaf may be cut 
off, so that when turned it will just fit the names of the cows. 
Then on this narrow page the next month may be ruled, and so on. 
In this way one writing of the names will answer for a whole 
year or lon£:er. 

Herd Record for January, 1916 

Lbs. milk Estimate Test from Lbs. fat 

given in of milk composite per 

Name and No. of Cow three days per month sample month 

1. Bettie UO 000 3.5 21.00 

2. Carlton 48 480 3.7 17. 7U 

3. Clara 90 900 3.4 30.00 

4. Violet 21 210 4.6 9.66 

5. Fay . etc. ... ... 

• 6. ... ... 

Dairy Testing Associations. — In 1905 the first cooperative 
association in the United States of America for the testino- of 
cows was organized in Michigan. The idea and the individual 
organizing the first in "tlie United States came from Denmark. 
The plan is that twenty-five farmers join their interests in the 
matter of testing and calculating dairy rations. In sections 
of the country where herds are comparatively large one dollar 
per cow per year furnishes money enough to run the association. 
In the middle w^est dairy herds are smaller on the average, 
and $1.25 to $1.50 per cow per year is necessary, since only 
those cows belonging to approximately twenty-five farmers can 
be tested. The system is to employ a competent young man, 
usually a graduate of a school of agriculture, or a short course, 



SOME RESULTS OF COW TESTING 149 

to go from farm to farm to weigh and test the milk ; weigh old 
rations fed and compute uew. lie remains but one day in a phace, 
making the circuit once each month. Whenever a good tester 
is obtained, experience shows the investment to be a highly 
profitable one on the farmers' part. Aside from getting the 
work done more cheaply than the farmer himself could usually 
do it there is the added advantage that it is done, which is so 
likely not to be the case for more than a few months, if the work 
is left entirely to the owner who has so many other matters 
demanding mental and physical attention. 

The three requisites for improvement in livestock are breed- 
ing, feeding and selcctiqn. Ilie dairy herd is no exception. A 
constant culling out process is essential to improvement. 

Some Results of Cow Testing. — The nature and the amount 
of improvement wliieh cooperative testing associations may be 
the means of effecting are sho^vn in an average of ten herds in 
one Iowa association during four years, as follows : 



Avg. animal milk 
yield per cow 
Year Lbs. 

1911 6483 

1912 7649 

1913 8738 

1914 8648 



One single herd Increased Lbs. 

1912 .5665 

1913 7060 

1914 9679 

1915 101S4 



Similar improvements have been brought about in a great 
many herds and communities. 

The growth and status of the work are well shown by the fol- 
lowing table compiled by the Dairy Division, United States 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



Avg. animal butter 
fat per cow 
Lbs. 


Avg. animal 

feed cost per 

cow 


Avg. animal 

profit per 

cow. 


246 


$26.40 


$32.42 


277 


52.31 


,39.20 


285 


43.67 


52.95 


312' 


48.12 


66.02 


Lbs. 






207.7 


$43.77 


$22.12' 


251.9 


33.28 


53.96 


339.8 


46.12 


72.22 


369.6 


52.28 


74.38 



150 



STARTING A DAIRY HERD 



Number of Cooperative Cow-Testing Associations in the United States, 
In Operation on July Ist, Each Year 

Number of Associations in operation 
1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 



States 

Michigan 

Maine 

New York 

Vermont 

Iowa 

California 

Wisconsin 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

Pennsylvania . . . 

Ohio 

Maryland <* 

Illinois 

Washington .... 

Minnesota 

^ew Hampshire . 

Oregon 

Utah 

Massachusetts . . 

Virginia 

Kansas 

Indiana 

Kentucky 

Missouri 

New Jersey 

W'est Virginia . . 

Connecticut 

North Carolina . 

Louisiana 

South Dakota . . . 
Nevada 



1 



Total 



5 4 3 


4 


4 


3 


3 


4 3 6 


5 


4 


5 


8 


1 3 9 18 


21 


29 


35 


2 8 10 11 


17 


28 


33 


2 5 4 


8 


7 


8 


13 


1 3 2 


4 


4 


5 


7 


9 10 10 


8 


11 


2'4 


37 


1 





3 


2 


3 


1 1 


2 


1 


1 





1 1 


2 


2 


7 


14 


1 





1 


4 


5 


1 


3 


3 


2 


4 


4 


3 


2 


7 


3 


1 3 


1 








1 


3 


' 


10 


9 


11 


1 


1 


1 


4 


8 


1 


1 


1 


7 


11 


1 


3 





1 


1 


2 ; 


> 


2 


3 





2 2 




2 












1 


1 


1 






2 


2 


3 






1 


1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 

1 
1 



1 
3 
1 
3 


1 
1 



1 



40 04 62 100 163 211 



QUESTIONS 

1. Give suggestions regarding the foundation stock for a dairy herd. 

2. In your section what blood predominates in the dairy herds? 

3. What are tlie points of a good dairy bull ? 

4. Give important points of a good pedigree. 

5. What is meant by community breeding? 

6. Give advantages and disadvantages of a breeding association. 

7. What dairy records should be kept by all dairymen? 

8. Of what use are these? 

9. Compare the three-day record with the daily record. 

10. What is a dairy testing association? Explain its working. 

11. What are some of the results of such associations? 



PART III 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY COWS 



CHAPTER XIX 



DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 



Motherhood and mother-love are the very foundation of 
the dairy industry. When a man comes to look upon a cow as 
a mother, a calf as a baby and young stock as growing children, 
he is in a very fair way to learn how to handle them. 

The great force which impels or stimulates milk production 
is the fact of motherhood, or, more exactly speaking, probably 
an enzyme formed in connection with motherhood. If this 
stimulating force be strong the cow will convert the nutriment 
contained in her feed into milk more rapidly, and keep at it for 
a longer time than she could if this stimulating force were weak. 

We do not yet know what organ of the body secretes this 
stimulating fluid nor how to test for it in advance. We can 
only wait and see what the cow does under good care and feeding 
and then judge her in comparison with other cows. 

The largest single item in the production of the recent 
phenomenal milk records of all breeds is without doubt the better 
methods of handling now employed (Fig, 56), but next to this 
seems to be the inherited presence in some families and in- 
dividuals of an unusually strong secreting power. 

This may explain, in a way, why some cows of good con- 
stitution and general type are, after all, very commonplace 
producers, and also why a cow of non-famous family occasionally 
springs into prominence by making an unusual record. The 
law of variation in breeding may have passed on to her this 
mark, just as Jerseys of solid-colored parents are bom with spots 
or Guernseys of orange and white parents with solid color or 
with dark " smoky " hairs about the muzzle, neck, or rear. 

Without in any way minimizing the value of breed, or type 
of the cows employed in the dairy, or the great importance of 
the ration consumed by the cows, it should be remembered that 
in the detailed management of the herd lies a very large part of 
the profits or disappointments to be derived. Excellent cows 

153 



154 



DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 



can be liberally fed, yet so handled as to produce little or no 
profit. The common cow may be handled so as to increase her 
production from twenty-five to fifty per cent over present yields. 

Gestation Period. — The length of time between service and 
the delivery of the calf is usually 280 to 285 days, or a little 
more than 9 months. It averages a little longer for bull than 
for heifer calves. In order that the cow may be dried off at the 
right time it is necessary that record be kept of the date of 
service of every cow. 

Time to Freshen. — Under most conditions in the United 
States, cows should be bred to freshen in the fall ; the calves 
to be dropped between October 1st and January 1st, If rea- 




Kvi.lrii.-c . [ iliiill aii.l failli. 



sonably well housed (Figs. 56 and 57), cows are more com- 
fortable in winter than in summer. This saves feed. They 
likewise travel about much less, which also is economy. These 
facts enable the cow to yield milk upon less feed in winter than 
in summer. This becomes the more important when consider- 
able quantities of feed are purchased or where forage crops are 
raised on high-priced land. 

I^ature forces the cow to yield milk for at least a few months 
after calving for the sustenance of its own calf. Thus the cow 
when comfortably housed, liberally fed and kindly treated may 
be expected to milk during the entire winter months. After a 
period of four to seven months most cows begin to slack off in 



GESTATION TABLE 



155 



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156 



DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 



production. If at this juncture the spring arrives with its 
warm weather and succulent appetizing grass, the milk ilow is 
gTeatly stimulated. These and other forces cause the cow to in- 
crease in milk flow in spring often nearly equal to the maximum 
produced shortly following freshening. Later, as the pasture 
grows short and the grass tough and heat and flies amve, the 
herd will decline in milk flow rapidly, but if the majority of 
the cows freshened in the autumn previous, they will already 
have given milk nearly a year. They may be allowed to go 
dry at this time. They need a vacation anyway. 




KiG. o7. — A good general farm and dairy barn. On this farm ilie auiiior viaa raised. 

The fall-fresh cow will yield about fifteen to twenty per 
cent more milk in the year than the^ spring-fresh cows. It is good 
practice to give them their dry period while the farm work is as 
I)ressing as is usually the case in August and September. 

Milk and butter fat also bring higher prices in winter than 
in summer. Thus the cow producing the bulk of her flow at a 
time when it is worth most per pound becomes exceedingly more 
valuable than one producing most liberally when prices are low. 

The time required to care for the cows may usually be more 
readily taken in winter than in summer. 

Furthermore, since "the amount and value of manure pro- 
duced depends largely upon the kind and amount of feed con- 



GIVING THE COW A REST 157 

Slimed, it is found that winter dairying serves to produce more 
manure at a time of the year when it can be saved. 

Winter dairying is more profitable than summer dairying, 
then, because tlie cow will give more milk, will give the bulk of 
it when prices are highest and when labor is cheapest, and 
will produce more manure when it can be saved. In addition, 
the calf born in the autunni has the advantage over spring- 
born calves, as noted elsewhere. 

Changing to the Fall Basis. — Many cows are still permitted 
to freshen in early spring. How they shall be put upon the 
fall basis varies with the individual animals in question, but it 
will usually be found more economical to force the herd to 
'' back up," in other words, the cow is to be bred as soon after 
calving as possible, thus causing her to drop the next calf in 
less than a year from the time she previously freshened. By 
again breeding quickly it is possible to force the calving period 
back into the early winter or late fall. If, however, the cow in 
question be of dairy breeding, and intense dairy temperament, 
to such an extent that oestrum does not appear for three to six 
months after calving, it will be practically necessary to breed as 
soon as possible and to let the calf come when it will. Such ani- 
mals, however, will be found the most persistent milkers, which 
will enable tliem to give milk a year and a half, if necessary. It 
is much easier to control the time of calving with the Holstein, 
Ayrshire, or Brown Swiss, tlian with the Jersey or Guernsey. 

Giving the Cow a Rest. — The yielding of two to four pounds 
of solid feed per day in milk is very exhausting to the cow's 
system. \Yhen to this is added the burden of the growth of 
the calf, a very considerable amount of work is being done. In 
order, therefore, that the calf may be amply nourished, and 
bom strong, and that the cow herself may have recuperated in 
flesh sufficient to enter upon a new lactation period strongly, it 
is highly advisable that the cow be given a rest of at least four, 
and better, six weeks. With the majority of cows no special 
effort need be made to cause them to go dry, but with the 
high type dairy animal with the intense dairy temperament, there 
is likelihood that the secretion of milk in considerable quan- 



158 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

titles Avill continue until the new calf is born. This is detri- 
mental to the calf and the cow also. Such cows need carefully 
to he forced to go dry. 

Drying Off the Cow. — To hasten the drying process a large 
part, or all, of tlie grain may be withheld from the ration, thus 
forcing her to subsist largely, or wholly, upon roughage. To 
this inducement may be added that of leaving a little milk in 
the udder at each milking for a time, that is, not milking out 
clean and shortly the milking of the cow only once a day. In 
this way most cows may safely be dried off preparatory to their 
rest period. To do this intelligently it is highly important that 
a breeding record be kept. 

The dry cow should be looked upon as a prospective milker, 
not as a mere boarder. If at all run down in flesh, grain or 
other sufficient feed should be given to enable her to thoroughly 
recuperate her exhausted condition. If pasture is ample no grain 
will be needed, but she should not be allowed to approach the 
next period of exhausting labor in a thin or indifferent condition. 
In fact it is now considered good practice and economy to feed 
some grain, if need be, while the cow is dry in order that she 
may become well recuperated, in fact almost fat. Enough more 
milk with a higher test will be produced during the next lactation 
period amply to repay the expense of conditioning at this time. 

Preparing Cows for Record Making. — Since milk fever is 
now little to be feared it has become the custom to " condition " 
or partially fatten cows during the dry period in order to 
enable them to produce a materially greater amount of milk and 
fat immediately following parturition. It has for years been 
known to a few, and more recently made generally public, that 
not only will a cow in good condition produce more milk, but 
that she will also yield milk of a somewhat higher fat content 
while milking down than would be the case if she had freshened 
in a lean condition. Thus, some Holstein cows, while weigh- 
ing 1400 pounds, yielded milk testing close to five per cent 
fat and so much of it that they were unable to eat enough feed 
to maintain such a large flow of rich milk. Consequently body 
tissue was drawn upon. The cows became thinner day by day. 



MANURE AN INDEX IN FEEDING 159 

As the body fat disappeared the percentage amount of fat in 
the milk lowered until as the cow, after a period of a few months, 
reached her lean working level, the percentage of fat in the milk 
had dropped graduallj to about 3.25 per cent The Holstein 
cow, Missouri Chief Josephine, averaged a test of 4.04 per 
cent fat during her seven-day record, but fell to only 2,81 per 
cent as an average for the year. Feeding during record making 
is discussed in Chapter XXIII. To prepare the cow to make 
the largest seven-day or thirty-day or yearly records, therefore, it 
is essential that she be given a rest period sufficient for thorough 
recuperation, even to become moderately well covered with fat. 

A caution here is due. If the high-milking cow is fed grain 
up too close to her calving time there is danger of inflammation 
of the udder. This is particularly the case if com forms a 
large part of the grain ration. All grain should be withheld 
several days prior to calving, and succulent roughage, as com 
silage or roots, be fed in moderation. This is done in order that 
her system shall not contain too much feed material and that her 
bowels shall be loose at the time of the birth of the calf. 

Manure an Index in Feeding. — Any careful herdsman of 
cows, horses, or other stock, will notice the condition and odor 
of the manure. If too hard the animals need some loosening 
feed, if too loose, some dry feed will usually help. The odor 
should also be noted. If it has a strong, rotten odor, evidence 
is ample that the animal is out of condition, most likely from 
over-feeding, and is not digesting her feed. Such putrid odor 
indicates that the whole system of the cow is being poisoned. In 
such a case a good dose of physic to clean out the fermenting 
matter should first be given and followed by a lessened amount 
of feed. Undigested kernels of grain usually call for finer 
grinding of the gTain feed. 

Milking Before Calving. — Occasionally it is necessary to 
milk the cow partially before the calf is delivered. This should 
not be done, however, unless the udder becomes severely distended 
and painful, and then in quantity only sufficient to relieve the 
stress. Most cows do not require this precaution. With high- 



160 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

class cows one danger in milking before the calf is born is the 
likelihood of bringing on milk fever. 

Care at Calving. — The calving period is a critical one in 
the cow's life. Our domesticated animals are very liable indeed 
to produce young so large as to require assistance in delivery 
and other calves of normal size occasionally become misplaced 
and demand attention to prevent suffocation. Cows in pasture 
still follow their wild instincts to hide in a remote corner, to 
calve in secrecy, and even to hide the young in the tall grass or 
brush. Cows freshening in the early winter are, therefore, much 
more easily cared for at this time. When nearly due to freshen 
the cow should be put in a box stall sufficiently large to allow 
free movement and turning without danger. Abundance of 
Avater and a little coarse succulent feed should be supplied 
(Fig. 58). Attention should be given that her bowels are 
moderately loose. The herdsman should be near at hand at 
the moment of calving to give assistance if needed. A few 
minutes spent at the critical moment may save the life of a 
valuable calf and occasionally the cow's as well. 

Care After Calving. — The strain upon the cow's system due 
to calving brings on some fever and nervousness. She should 
be given free access to water which is not too cold. InTo feed 
need be given for some hours. If both cow and calf are normal 
they may be left alone, she to clean and to lick the calf off, and 
he to learn the use of his legs. The cow is usually permitted to 
suckle the calf once, though this is not necessary. Cows have 
strong attachment for their calves only after having lived with 
them for a few days. Consequently, the removal of the calf at 
once, or when but a few hours old, causes no particular bereave- 
ment on the part of the cow. The calf is wholly forgotten in a 
day. The calf should be removed from the sight and hearing of 
the dam while she is absent from the stall. Her return is the 
psychological moment for the dairyman. The man who later 
is to milk her should be on hand to caress, to speak kindly and 
to feed a moderate mess of steamed oats or bran mash. While 
she is consuming this delicacy the herdsman should groom her 



MILK FEVER 



161 



with a brush, handle the udder aud teats, and gently draw a 
small quantity of milk. It is not at all infrequent for the cow 
to transfer her affections from the calf absent to the man present, 
to adopt him as it were, and to him yield milk as freely and as 
gladly as she otherwise would have done to her own young. The 
more intelligent and sensitive the cow and the man, the more 
keenly true these facts. 

Milk Fever.^ — The disease known as milk fever, or parturient 
apoplexy, which was the dread of high-class dairymen for a 
good many years, is no longer much to he feared, for whatever 
may or may not be the real cause of the condition, its cure or 







H^FT^a 




Fig. 58. — A supply of good water constantly within reach of the cow is an aid in milk 
production. (Courtesy Janes Mfg. Co.) 

prevention is now not difficult and reasonably certain by means 
of the so-called air treatment. 

To prevent this malady so far as possible the heavy milking 
cow should not be fully milked out at first nor for a couple of 
days. The precipitation of the condition is closely associated 
with the sudden and complete removal of the contents of the 
udder. By removing the first milk gradually many mishaps 
may be averted. Occasionally, however, precautions fail to 
prevent and the cow comes down wdth milk fever. For treat- 
ment, see page 202. 
11 



162 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

Two pr More Milkings Per Day, — Ordijiarilj the cow 
milked twice -per day, dividing tlie twenty-four hours into two 
approximately equal periods, will give as much as she would 
if milked three or more times per day. The fact remains, 
however, that when the udder becomes filled with milk there 
seems to be a cessation of the activity of the milk secreting 
glands. Some cows. are able to digest and to convert into milk a 
quantity of feed considerably greater than can be stored in the 
udder when removed but twice daily. Such cows should be 
milked three times and most abundant milkers four times per 
day, dividing the twenty-four hours into eight or six hour 
periods, as the case may be. This naturally involves more 
labor, but if a large yield is sought, such care will be found 
necessary. The phenomenal records recently made by the lead- 
ing cows of all the various breeds were produced upon the system 
of three or four milkings per day. 

Period of Greatest Yield. — As a rule cows give the most 
milk per day between the eighteenth and the twenty-eighth day 
after calving. The most fat is usually produced during the 
second week and the most milk during the third week. This 
then would be the time for expecting advanced registry records 
to be made if any were possible. 

Breeding. — Following a normal calving, a cow should not 
be bred for about three months, unless it is desired to turn the 
time of calving to an earlier date ; but following an abortion the 
cow should be bred as early as conditions will permit. That is 
as soon as all discharges have ceased and all organs are clean and 
healthy again. The disease which causes abortion also induces 
sterility, consequently, considerable time may elapse before con- 
ception will take place. It is wise, therefore, to start early in 
order that the cow may not lose any more time than necessary. 

The first year's record of a young cow, according to Eckles, 
may be used as a guide as to her ability to perform in later life, 
]U"Oviding, of course, she is not too young when beginning work 
and has been adequately fed and housed. A daiiw breed heifer 
freshening at twenty-four to twenty-eight months of age should 
produce during the coming year about 70 per cent of the 



EFFECT OF FEED ON TEST OF MILK 163 

quantity wliich would be expected of liei- in her mature fonn 
aud duriug the second lactation year 80 per cent and the third 
90 per cent. 

One should not draw too hasty conclusions recardins; a 
young cow that is not doing well yet which is of such breeding 
that better work might be expected. 

The famous Holstein cow, Missoiu'i Chief Josephine, 
calved the first time when about two and one-half years old 
and was fairly well fed after she calved but had not been put 
into condition before freshening. ITer milk for the first three 
months tested only 1.5 j^er cent fat. Her first year's work was 
very ordinary, but upon maturity and with better feeding she 
broke the world's record for six months, producing 17,008 
pounds of milk. Her record for the year was 20,861 pounds 
of milk. On her best day she yielded 110.3 pounds of milk, 
about fifty quarts, testing 2.8 per cent fat. 

Effect of Feed on Test of Milk. — When cows have for a 
considerable time been very inadequately fed they not only 
will produce a smaller quantity of milk and fat, but the milk 
will have in it a slightly lower percentage amount of fat. The 
same animals later liberally fed upon the ordinary feedstuffs 
are kno\^ai to increase veiy materially not onlj^ in total quantity 
of milk and fat yielded, but also in percentage of fat as well. 
Many reasonable and other methods have been tried for the 
production of milk of higher fat content. Such artificial methods 
as the feeding of fat, however, "produce a higher percentage only 
by throwing the cow out of condition and making her feverish. 
The period of high percentage fat is then of short duration and 
is usually followed by a period of depression. 

The only practicable way of securing more fat for market 
is by feeding the cow liberally, yet within reason, on a balanced 
ration made U]) of ordinary feedstuifs and otherwise giving her 
such care that she will be able to yield a larger quantity of milk. 
The struggle to secure a higher fat content in milk is imprac- 
tical with any cow except in so far as it can be influenced by 
the condition of body fatness accumulated during her period of 
rest; or as a long time plan, the breeding from stock which 



164 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

yields milk of a fat content higher than the average for the breed. 

The effect of drought on the richness of milk is to lessen it 
perceptibly, especially if the dronght occurs early in the season, 
before the grass has become fully grown or matured. In 1906 
an early drought in northern Missouri caused the fat test of milk 
to decline as much as five-tenths per cent or from 3.7 to 3.2. 
The solids not fat in the milk were also so low that the lactometer 
reading of such milk was as low as 2S or 29 with grade Short- 
horn cows, when it should and normally would have been 31.5. 
The yield of cheese as well as of butter was disappointingly low 
during that season. 

Effect of Turning on Pasture. — One of the traditions of the 
dairpncn is that the quality of milk depreciates when cows are 
turned from the dry feed of the stable on to the succulent spring 
pasture. They were often encouraged in this belief by local 
creamery men during the days of the wdiole milk creameiy. That 
there is no tmiform decrease in the fat content of milk under 
such conditions is proved by the thousands of tests made of milk 
at the Minnesota Station. At this institution a sample of every 
milking is tested by itself, not composited, as in so many places. 
For more than twenty years, with a herd varying from twenty 
to sixty cows, tests have been made twice a day. The breeds 
included in this and other experiments included the Jersey, 
Guernsey, ITolstein, Ayrshire, Shorthorn and Brown Swnss. 
From the mass of evidence at hand it may be stated that the 
usual opinion is incorrect where well-fed cows are concerned 
that, whereas a few decrease in fat content, the average test of 
the milk of the well-fed herd is greater following the turning on 
to pasture than it w^as just prior to it. It is highly probable 
that the impression gained a place during the pioneer days when 
cows " spring poor " were often turned out to pasture long be- 
fore there was enough feed even to sustain weight, to say noth- 
ing of producing milk. 

Large vs. Small Pasture. — A small pasture with an abund- 
ance of grass is economical, in that the cows do not w^aste so 
much of their energy in travelling about. On the other hand, 
a study of the movements of the herd in pasture wall reveal the 



SHORT PASTURE 165 

fact that they choose location according to the condition of the 
weather, seeking the sheltered places if chilly, while resting on 
the hill-top in hot weather. A large pasture offers greater oppor- 
tunity for the cows to make themselves thoroughly comfortable. 
If, however, the pasture is on a dead flat prairie country it is 
probable that the smaller pasture is preferable, while on rolling 
or broken land, the larger is l)etter. 

Acres Required Per Cow. — This naturally varies greatly 
with the fertility of the field and the rainfall, also in many 
sections with the amount of timber or brush land included in 
the pasture. Dense forest yields little 'pasturage. Likewise in 
old clearings, largely grown up to brush, grass is to be found 
only in the open spaces, while within the clmnjis of bushes little 
or nothing can be secured by cows. The open field, well seeded 
to blue grass and white clover, will, on the average, yield grass 
in such quantity that two to three acres will feed one mature 
cow during the pasture season. The rotation pasture, however, 
should produce more feed and thereby require only about one 
and a half acres per cow per season. In many sections it is 
calculated that the average young stock consumes one-half and 
the dry cow two-thirds as much feed as the cow in milk. This 
distinction is made for pasture rental purposes. 

Short Pasture. — It is highly probable that the great .dropping 
off in milk flow in July and August is due more to the short, dry 
pasture than to the presence of flies. The writer once tested 
this matter by means of t^vo groups of cows similarly fed, one- 
half turned to pasture and the other half kept in the yard. Both 
were annoyed with flies about equally and both had all the feed 
they would readily consume, yet those animals that went to 
pasture went dry at the rate of 15 per cent per month, while 
those kept in yard decreased at the rate of only 8 per cent 
per month. If to the quiet of the yard had been added the com- 
fort of a half-darkened stable during the day the difference 
between the two groups would unquestionably have been yet 
more marked. 

If we will but remember that the average cow, giving the 
average amount of milk, requires the feed nutrients contained 



166 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

in about 100 pounds of grass per day, and will then calculate 
the number of steps and bites the cow must take on a short 
pasture to secure 100 pounds, it will readily be believed that she 
does not continue to labor until the full amount has been 
obtained, but rather that when the hunger is fairly satisfied she 
ceases her search and lies down to rest. She has probably 
already walked a greater distance than is really good for her 
and yet has secured an insufficient quantity of feed. Her main- 
tenance then would be above normal and the supply of feed 
below normal, thus reducing the quantity of feed consumed 
beyond maintenance, to an exceedingly small amount. 

Protection Against Flies.^The amount of harm done the 
dairy herd by annoyance from flies is not at all a settled matter. 
Two experiment stations, Connecticut and Missouri, conducted 
tests to indicate the influence of the fly and, entirely inde- 
pendently of each other, came to the conclusion that the damage 
done by the fly had been overestimated and that the slacking off 
in milk yield was due far more largely to a scarcity of feed and 
short pasture. On the other hand, we find experienced and 
keenly observing dairymen who attribute the falling off in milk 
during fly season very largely indeed to the labor and pain 
endured by the cows due to the flies. This is particularly the 
case in some of our newer northern sections where various 
" deer," " moose " and " night " flies are particularly abundant. 

It is possible, therefore, that the difference of opinion is in 
part due to the difference in the sort of fly common in the section 
considered. 

Supplementing the pasture by means of a crop (of Canadian 
field peas and oats) to be cut and fed green when pastures are 
short and dry, is often necessary in the maintenance of milk 
flow. If this is contemplated, about one acre should be used for 
every twenty cows to be fed. Canada field peas and oats sown 
as early as the ground can be worked, and followed by a similar 
quantity sown when the first has grown to a height of two or 
three inches, makes a good soiling crop for the northern states. 
A more reliable crop to be fed later in the season will be found 
in fodder corn, drilled thickly, at the rate of thirty-five to forty 



MILKING 167 

pounds of seed to the acre and put in as early as the season will 
permit. This will be ready to feed in seventy-five to ninety 
days after planting. Jf possible, the field of corn to be fed out, 
should be located close beside the pasture or even enclosed within 
the pasture. This nearness is for the sake of ease and economy 
of labor in feeding, A few minutes with a hand com knife 
will sufiice to cut and throw over the fence as much as the 
animals will readily consume. If the supplementary com field 
is located by the pasture and is made long and narrow the 
expense of feeding will have been reduced to the minimum and 
it will be found to be a wonderfully well paying investment. 

Milking. — The cow is a creature of habit. To return the 
maximum of milk for the feed consumed she should be milked 
at regular intervals, and preferably, by the same individual. In 
some institutional or other large herds where the milking force 
is continually changing in personnel, thus necessitating frequent 
change of milkers, it is found preferable to shift the milkers 
continually in order to prevent any cow from becoming attached 
to any one milker. Thus the operation of milking becomes an 
impersonal matter. It is more likely, too, that the damage done 
by an individual poor milker will be partially rectified by the 
following good milker. 

In beginning the milking act care should always be taken 
to start the process slowly. Sharp pains unquestioiiably pierce 
the cow's udder just as the milk starts. The first few streams 
should be taken slowly and gently, especially in cold weather. 
Many a quarrel between cow and man might have been averted if 
consideration had been shown at this point. 

Methods of Milking — A few years ago the Danish or the 
Heglund manipulation method of milking was quite widely dis- 
cussed and was tested by the Wisconsin Station. In brief, the 
result showed that following a slow or weak-handed milker the 
Danish system of manipulation or massage would materially 
increase the amount of milk yielded, but when it followed a 
strong, active milker, little, if any, benefit was derived. 

The Heglund system was devised very largely to interest 
people in general, but farm and village girls in particular, in 



168 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

taking interest and pride in milking. It served that purpose 
well, but also demonstrated to all the need of massage of the 
mammaiy glands if greatest activity and yield were to be ob- 
tained. Ample stimulation seems to be furnished, however, 
bj ordinary rapid, strong-handed milking, followed by a mod- 
erate amount of drawing down of the teat and stripping out of 
the udder. "SMien once the milk flow has been well started, strong- 
handed, rapid milking is preferable, as such will ol)tain more 
milk at each milking and will keep the cow in milk for a longer 
l^eriod of months. 

Stripping for some time after the major portion of the milk 
has been drawn is in part a habit on the part of the cow and the 
milker. This may be largely avoided if the milker will but 
draw down finnly on the teat with one hand while gently but 
firmly squeezing and rubbing downward on the udder with the 
other. Stripping, as commonly understood, that is, the slipping 
of the teat between the thumb and finger to finish getting all 
the milk should not be practiced. The milk can all be drawn 
with less pain to the cow by finishing with the full hand or with 
thumb and two fingers. 

The first and last milk drawn from a cow differ very ma- 
terially in fat content. The first is thin, almost watery. The 
fat in such frequently is only one quarter as great in amount as 
in the last drawn or the strippings. The amount of difference 
between first and last depends largely upon how much milk 
the cow is giving at that particular time. If fresh in milk so 
that the udder is fully distended, in fact turgid, the first milk 
dra-wTi may test as low as one-half of one per cent fat, while the 
stripping test is as high as 9 per cent fat, the last being eighteen 
times as rich as the first. But with a cow giving only five to 
ten pounds at a milking, the first may test 2 or 3 per cent and 
the last G or 7 per cent, with an average of 4 per cent for the 
whole mass. This emphasizes the necessity of milking the cow 
drv and mixing the milk well before taking a sample for testing, 
also the fact that if the cow is not milked out clean each time 
the richest part of the milk is the ]iart lost. Incomplete milking 



THE MILKING MACHINE 169 

also is a very common cause of garget as well as causing the cow 
to dry up ahead of time. 

The Milking Machine. — From the many reports bj experi- 
ment stations, and othei*wise, regarding the efficiency and prac- 
ticability of the mechanical milker it is obvious that at least some 
of the machines, as now developed, and at present represented 
by a dozen or more coitipanies, will milk cows, that is, draw 
from tlie udder most of the milk contained therein, but that it 
will not strip out as thoroughly as desired nor yet massage the 
mammary glands for the purpose of stimulating blood flow, and 
much less excite in the cow's nervous system the impulse to 
milk secretion. The fact that some daii';\nnen are continuing 
to use the machine and are well pleased with it after an experi- 
ence of from three to six years is evidence that the machine itself 
is already in a reasonably high stage of perfection, but the fact 
that miany farmer daiiwmen who introduce the machine later 
lay it aside, would indicate that the difficulty of finding the right 
man to operate the machine is great. One is almost tempted to 
draw the conclusion that the machine has reached a higher stage 
of perfection than have the operators. 

If on a t^vo-man farm forty or fifty cows may be kept by the 
assistance of the mechanical milker the advantages of the larger 
number of cows or the small number of men is obvious. In the 
dairies of fifty or more cows where transient labor must be 
depended upon, it seems highly probable that one of the mechan- 
ical milkers will be found a profitable investment, provided the 
OA^mer operates the machine himself. 

Some machines are not provided with adequate reg-ulators 
of the suction force, while others have no way provided for the 
relief of the teat from constant or near-constant suction. Cows 
do not object to the feel of the teat cups nor to the click of the 
machine. In fact many now on the market are easier on the 
cow than are ordinary hand milkers with untrimmed finger nails. 

The whole matter of mechanical milkers now resolves itself 
into three questions, the cost for the number of coavs to be 
handled, the handling so as to keep up the flow of milk and the 
sanitary character of the product drawn. If a man has feed 



170 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

and bam room for twenty or thirty cows and can save hiring a 
man by having a machine, it will pay to put one in, provided he 
understands machinery reasonably well and understands cows 
fully as well as would be required if he were to do all the work 
by hand and will attend to the wQrk in person. 

Most or all the machines are now made so that all parts can 
be cleaned. It is another question whether they will be kept 
clean. If cared for properly cleaner milk can be produced by 
machine than by hand, but in practice there is danger that the 
milk will not be so clean. 

The success or the failure of the machine now depends 
almost wholly on the operator. 

The bed of the cow naturally should be comfortable whether 
made so with shavings or straw. It is the nature of cattle to 
eat their feed rapidly, then to lie down to ruminate it. If a 
hard, narrow, or otherwise uncomfortable bed is furnished them, 
the discomfort will induce activity and needlessly increase the 
amount of feed necessary for maintenance. Making the cows 
completely comfortable saves feed (Fig. 59). 

Dehorning the cows after maturity gives them less pain than 
they would inflict upon some sister cow if permitted to wear 
their useless side araas. Clippers for the removal of horns are 
not to be advised, since they crush the bone and thereby leave a 
large number of little slivers which make healing diflicult and 
very slow. A fine meat saw is preferable to any other instru- 
ment yet devised. The horn should be sawed so close to the 
head that a ring of hair about a qunrter of an inch wdde will still 
cling to the horn. Cut thus short the horn will not grow, neither 
will it hurt the animal as keenly as it would if cut a half inch 
longer, in which case the stub would continue growth and often 
produce an ugly or annoying malformed hom. It is inadvisable 
to dehorn in winter because of the cold, and it is dangerous, 
indeed, to dehorn in summer when flies are bad. If, in the case 
of an accident, it becomes necessary to saw off an animal's hom 
during fly season and maggots should develop in the wound, they 
may be thoroughly expelled by means of turpentina The 
wound should then be covered with a wad of cotton saturated 



KICKING COWS 



171 



with tar, to form a temporary scab, and to repel flies. It, of 
course, is preferable to apply the tarred cotton as a precaution 
rather than as a remedy. 

Cows without horns live together so much more peaceably, 
crowding about the water tank like so many sheep, that the prac- 
tice of permitting the horns to remain on the working dairy herd 
should be considered an extravagance, at best a luxuiy. 

As a working practice it is preferable to prevent the horn 
from growing on the calf by menus of caustic. 

Sucking cows are liable to develop if calves are permitted 
to suckle each other after drinking. They often thus learn the 




FtG. 59. — Comfort is also economy in the dairy cow stable. 

taste of milk from some member of the herd and finally discover 
that they themselves may be the source of that satisfaction. 
Various means have been suggested, but the one which most 
nearly always works is to put into the cow's nose an ordinary 
bull ring and into this ring a second ring, forming thus a t\vo- 
linked chain. This so interferes with the process of sucking as 
to finally discourage it altogether. 

It is often a hard habit to break, however, and should be 
averted hy so handling the calves that they do not learn the trick. 

Kicking cows are usually developed from rough handling. 
The more intelligent and sensitive the animal the more likely it 
is to resent unjust treatment. The heifer with first calf is 



172 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

nervous and too often unaccustomed to being handled. Quiet 
self-control on the part of the milker for a few dajs will usually 
suffice to convince the young mother that she is among friends 
with no reason to fight. 

In case flies, barb-wire scratch, or other cause has made bad 
sores upon the cow's teats, greatest comfort in milking is found 
by first moistening the skin with warm water or milk. A good 
fly-repelling salve should be used after milking to heal the 
wounds. In case it is necessary to tie the animal's legs this 
should be done by tying them together with a soft rope, put^ on 
in " figure eight," above the hocks. This will prevent her 
doing damage and without subjecting her to the strain and excite- 
ment which would follow strapping a foot back. 

It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the cow is a docile 
creature, fully willing to be friends with her keeiier, and Avill not 
kick without cause. 

Hard milkers are frequently caused by neglect of the teat 
in permitting it to become too dry and harsh. This may be 
overcome by the use of vaseline, which should be thoroughly 
rubbed into the skin before milking. Slow and weak-handed 
milking also encourages hard milking. Thus when neglect and 
weak-handed milking have developed a thoroughly hard milker 
she may often be brought back into normal condition by the 
application of oil and strong hands. 

Leaking teats are occasionally a great annoyance, since they 
not only permit the waste of a considerable amount of the milk 
so preciously formed, but so saturate the floor beneath the animal 
that the stall becomes sour. This in tuni not only produces a 
bad odor in the barn, but infects the animal as she lies in her 
place and increases the likelihood of milk being produced which 
will sour abnormally soon. Occasionally such leaks may be 
prevented by coating the tip of the teat with a little collodion 
immediately following milking. Alum rubbed on the moist 
end of the teat immediately following milking may aid somewhat. 

Name the Cows.- — Every cow in the bam should be given a 
name and be called by that name sufficiently often and clearly 
to enable her to learn it. It gives individuality to the animals 



WATERING 173 

and increases the interest on the part of the attendants. Further 
the name often proves valuable in preventing cows from wander- 
ing into forbidden parts of the barn, for when they are seen 
starting, if spoken to clearlj^, and called by name they realize 
that they have been discovered and return to their own stall or 
pass out as desired. 

Every cow should be given her ovni place in the barn, if 
possible, and taken to that place upon the first visit to the barn. 
When led directly to the right place and tied and fed she soon 
learns her place and takes it of her own accord, thus preventing 
confusion and accidents so liable to result if a barn is opened to 
a herd, the individuals of which have no definite place. 

Watering. — Cows require from three to five gallons, tw^enty- 
five to forty pounds of water, per day when dry and from three 
to four times that amount when milking. In calculating tank 
capacity IGO pounds or twenty gallons will be require'd each 
day for each cow. If the cow is compelled to drink ice water 
in winter the feeder may calculate that the heat in two pounds 
of hay will be required simply to warm the water from the tem- 
perature of the pond or icy tank to that of the animal's body and 
that half or more of this loss can be saved by tempering the 
drinking water to about 70 or 80 degrees. This is particularly 
desirable when cows are watered from a large tank out of doors. 
The violent shivering so often seen in cows and horses just after 
drinking a lot of cold water is nature's way of giving the animal 
exercise to warm the water. (See paragraph on Stable Tem- 
perature.) ^Yhile some cows will drink only once a day by 
preference, most desire to drink at least twice. A cow milked 
very heavily should be watered at least four times a day or, better, 
have water available at all times, either in a pail or drinking 
fountain. 

Methods of Watering in Barn. — A private drinking foun- 
tain for each cow is not essential to economical milk production, 
nor even to high production. They are expensive to install 
and necessitate labor in keeping them clean. Further than this, 
it will be found good practice, even in cold weather, to tuni 
the cows out once or twice a day to give them a chance to limber 



174 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

"up by a little walk and opportunity to discover one another. 
Unless use is made of this fact the intense dairy cows are liable 
to go over period after period of heat unnoticed. During winter 
the cows should be watered in the yard on wann days and from a, 
tank at a convenient place in the stable during severe weather. 

It, however, is exceedingly convenient to have a watering- 
device in the stable whereby the cows may be watered while 
still in their stalls (Fig, GO). A convenient method of doing 
this is to run a water pij^e along the top of the cement base of 
the manger in front of the cows, then to have holes drilled at 
intervals to allow the escape of water into the concrete manger. 
Thus all cows receive water at the same moment. This pre- 
vents reaching and slipping, also saves water. 

Another convenient method, where the manger will not per- 
mit its use as a trough, is to extend the water pipe in front of the 
cows with a faucet and short hose between each two cows. A pail 
may then be set into the manger and water drawn directly into 
it from the pipe close by. This requires a little more time but 
is cheap of installation, and will not be needed except during 
severe weather when field work is usually not pressing. 

Salt Requirement. — I^ot only from nature in general, but by 
exact experiments, it is known that cows require salt in order 
to remain in health. In a test a few of the cows broke down 
after less than a month of salt fasting, wherc'as others withstood 
the strain for more than a year, but these finally and suddenly 
developed a thoroughly miserable condition, which, however, was 
quickly alleviated by the addition of salt to the ration. Heavy 
milkers need more salt than those that give but little milk. Salt 
not only whets the appetite of the cow, but seeius also to lessen 
the waste from the body of protein of feed or muscle, or in 
other words, a little salt regularly fed or placed where the cow 
may eat it at will tends to save other feedstufFs. The fact that 
the addition of salt to hay or grain mixture makes the feed more 
palatable is an important item, since feed that is well liked is 
more easily and thoroughly digested. Cows need about one 
ounce of salt per day on the average. Salt bricks attached to the 
side of the stall are of no particular advantage. Common barrel 



CHANGE OF ROUTINE 



175 



salt costs much less and is more easily given and also permits 
being mixed with the grain or the admixture of bone meal, which 
is a special advantage to young stock. 

Change of routine in doing the work of the stable shonld be 
avoided so far as possible. It is preferable that the feed for the 
day be divided into two eqnal parts and fed, half in the morning 
and half in the evening. The grain should be fed first and 
while it is being consumed the milking should be done. This 
aids in getting the coav into an agreeable frame of mind and 
lessens the likelihood of a quarrel with the milker and makes for 




Fig. 60. — The drinking fountain, con\enieiii but ntl essenual, (Photo loaned by James 

Mig. Co.) 

larger flow of milk. Hay should be fed after milking because 
it will fill the air of the stable with dust, which dust carries 
immense quantities of mould, and bacteria, which will hasten 
the spoiling of the milk if permitted to enter it. Silage should 
be fed after milking because of its odor. Cows should be 
Avatered twice a day, once in the morning after eating their feed 
and again in the afternoon just before being fed. 

Punctuality and regularity are very positive virtues in dairy 
workers, for not only does the work itself depend on it, but the 
amount of milk the cows will yield as well. Even with proper 



176 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 

feed and comfort, if regularity is lacking, a cow will not yield 
what she otherwise would. 

A dog on a dairy farm may or may not be a nuisance ; that 
depends upon his character and training. The ordinary sort, 
however, is an expensive luxury which is not to be recommended. 
A good Shepherd or Collie, however, may very readily be trained 
not only to save many steps, but also to do general police duty on 
a livestock farm and thereby be of real value, 

QUESTIONS 

1. ^Vllat is the normal gestation period for cows? 

2. What time of the year is generally the best time for cows to freshen ? 

Why ? 

3. How may a spring cow be put on to a fall-calving schedule? 

4. How much rest does a cow need between lactation jjeriods? 

5. Tell how to dry off a cow. 

6. How should tlie dry cow be fed? 

7. What is meant by "conditioning'' a cow? 

8. How may the manure serve as an index in feeding? 

9. When should cows be milked before calving? 

10. What care should be given at calving time? 

11. How should the cow be cared for after calving? 

12. How many times a day should a cow be milked when fresh? 

13. At what time does a cow give most milk? 

14. How soon after calving ought a cow to be bred? 

15. What percentage of a mature cow's record is the first year of work? 

Second year ? Third year ? 
10. How may the feed afl'ect the test of milk? 

17. What effect has a drought on the quality of milk? 

18. What effect does turning cows out to pasture in the spring have upon 

tlie quality of milk yielded? 

19. Which is preferable, a large or a small pasture for cows? 
20; How many acres are required to pasture a cow? 

21. How is midsummer short pasture to be met? 

22. How should milking be done? 

23. What is the value of the Heglund method of milking? 

24. How do the first and the last milk drawn from a cow differ? 

25. What of the milking machine? Have you seen one work? 

26. What temperature is best suited to dairy cows? 

27. Discuss light in the dairy barn. 

28. What is the best way to dehorn? 

20. How may hard milking be made easier? 



CHAPTER XX 
HOW CAN I GET THE MOST FROM THE COWS I HAVE? 

The immediate problem which confronts many, probably 
most, American farmers to-day is not so much what breed or 
strain of cows would be most profitable to keep if they could 
have what they want, but rather how to get the greatest returns 
from what they now have. All realize that a few cows are 
outstandingly valuable and that there is a small horde of lesser 
power that are very good, but the number of high-producing 
cows is altogether too small to furnish each farmer with a herd 
or even with one specimen, and that for some time the bulk of 
the dairy work of this country must of necessity be done by 
grades only moderately well suited to their tasks. 

Common cows have repeatedly shown themselves capable of 
producing much more and more economically than is generally 
realized, even 50 to 100 pounds of fat per year. To secure such 
results, however, the '' common " cow must be accorded " pure 
bred " care, i.e., she must be fed and treated right. In general, 
farmers should keep the cattle they now have, and build up. 
The following are the chief points in getting what we can out 
of the cows we now have : 

1. Fall fresh to produce more milk. See Chapter XIX. 

2. Comfortably housed to save feed. See Chapter XX I. 

3. Succulent feed, silage, to encourage liberal eating. See 
Chapter XXIII. 

4. Feeding liberally so cow can have something to work on. 
See Chapter XXIII. 

5. Fair amount of grain so cows may be able to consume more 
nutriment. See Chapter XXIII, 

6. Balance of nutrients, so the body and the milk may be 
adequately fed. See Chapter XXIII. 

Y. Treated with kindness so she will be willing and glad to 
let do\\Ti the milk. See Chapter XIX. 

12 177 



178 QUESTIONS 

8. Eegularlj fed and milked so the cow's system may not 
be frequently thrown out of tune. See Chapter XIX. 

9. Liberally watered, twice daily. See Chapter XIX. 

10. Protected from heat and flies in simimer. See Chapter 
XIX. 

11. Milked quickly and thoroughly. See Chapter XIX. 

12. Dehorned. See Chapter XIX. 

13. ]\[ilk weighed and tested. See Chapter XVIII, 
11. Best cows kept and bred to pure-bred bull. 

Our grade cows must of necessity serve as foundation, but 
we should aim to build higher than the foundation only. Life is 
too short to spend on inefficient cows any longer than necessary. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How sliould a man proceed to secure a profitable dairy herd when 

he has no cows to start with ? 

2. When he has a herd of untested grades on hand? 

3. What three things should guide him in selecting a breed? 

4. What points should be looked out for in selecting a bull? 

5. Wliat "off color" in Guernsey and in Holstein bulls may sometimes be 

taken advantage of? 

6. What must a pedigree show in order to be a good one? 

7. What are the advantages of community breeding? 

8. How are community breeding associations operated? 

9. How are daily milk records valuable? 

10. Show how the three-day record is worked. 

11. What is the plan of operation of coJlperative dairy test associations? 

12. What results have been attained by organized cow testing? 



CHAPTER XXI 
SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY BARN 

The stable need not be expensive but should be made to 
furnish as nearly as possible the condition which naturally 
surroimds the cows during that time of year in which they 
universally produce milk most abundantly, namely, the spring 
or early summer. The cow does not care for the time of year, 
but rather for conditions (Fig. 61). 

Certain features of the dairy barn and cow stable are very 
often under discussion,^ chief among which are such matters as 
the preferable kind of floor, whether cows should be faced out- 
ward or inward, and the like. 

Hay storage over a cow stable is thoroughly permissible even 
in well organized cow barns, provided simply that there be a good 
tight floor between the hay and the cows. The breath of stock 
injures, or even ruins, hay or fodder if stored above without 
being protected. It is economy to provide the hay floor. Also 
the dust that gathers on hay or straw over stock will so easily 
and so often be knocked off into the air of the stable that clean 
milk could only with difficulty be produced under such conditions. 

The floor material best adapted for use in dairy cow stables 
is concrete. This may well be left exposed in walks, alleys, 
gutters and mangers, and may be a foundation under the cows, 
but should be overlaid with some non-conductor of moisture 
and heat w^here the cows must stand and lie. Common soft-wood 
plank soaked in tar or creosote will render much good service, 
but has the disadvantage of wearing out too quickly and also of 
offering many cracks which, if not filled with tar, will collect 
dirt, Cork bricks are made of bits of cork compressed into the 
form of common bricks, being held together by asphaltum or 
similar material. Such brick are good as covering for a strong, 
coarse concrete foundation, especially in being warm, not severely 
hard on the cow's feet, and waterjiroof (Fig. 62). 

The cost of cork brick is about $48 to $50 per 1000 and 

179 



180 



SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM 



50 to 60 bricks will be required per cow. Of consequence too 
is the fact that they are not made uniform in thickness, so that a 
smooth floor top is difficult to make. 

Creosote wooden blocks, such as are now so much employed 
in surfacing city streets, are now being much used for cow-stable 
floors. They are cheap, very durable, sanitary and warm. Of 
these blocks, about ninety will be needed per cow. 

An insulating layer in the concrete makes the floor dry and 
warm. The time to install the insulating layer is when the 




Fig. 61. — A typical "Vermont barn. Note team approaf li on f Iik c levels. (Photo by author. ) 



floor is being constructed. After the rough grouting is poured 
a layer of tar paper is nailed on it all over the cow beds. The 
nail heads are left projecting half an inch so that when the 
finish coat is poured the nails will help to hold it in place. Two 
coats of coal-tar paint is sometimes used instead of the tar paper. 
Either will prevent the capillary action of moisture through the 
cement and the floor will be wann and dry. The top layer of 
cement will retain the heat of animals much as sbapstone does. 
Facing cows inward makes feeding easier and the cleaning 
is as easy if a litter carrier be provided. But the plan has the 
distinct disadvantage in that the walls are certain in a very few 



FACING THE COWS OUTWARD 



181 



days to become fouled by the spattering manure unless a wide 
walk is left behind the cows, or a deep manure gutter is provided. 
Any manure on the walls must remain to be unsightly and a 
reproach to the manager or be scrubbed off. It should be re- 
membered too that fresh manure contains a slimy substance from 
walls of the cow's intestines which renders it sticky. On the 
early-day log stables fresh cow manure was regiilarly used as a 
mortar to plaster up the cracks between logs and chinks where 
it would withstand weathering for several months. On the 
wall behind the cow it will remain until scrubbed off. Such 
work is expensive in time and wholly non-productive. 




Fig. 62.— a .sul..-<tami:ill\ buill r,nv ^.tahlr. N(,tr il,. 

brick floor where the cows arc to stand. 



t t^uticr aiul Uii 



Many good dairymen provide deep gutters lor the manure 
and wide walks behind the cows, and then prefer to have the 
cows face inward. They then have their eyes away from the 
bright light of windows. 

By facing the cows outward the walls are kept clean and the 
floor between the two rows of cows may be cleaned far more 
easily than the walls. Furthermore, the difference in the 
standard of cleanliness for the walls and the floor renders it 
many times more easy to keep a cow stable presentable when the 
cows face outward rather than inward. If cows face outward 



182 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM 

it is very often true economy to make the stable wide enough 
to permit a wagon or even a three-horse manure spreader to be 
driven through the barn from end to end, in order that the 
manure may be removed with the least possible amount of labor 
and drawn directly to the fields (Fig. 63). 

Arranged so, the cows have a wide door through which to 
enter the stable, thus lessening the danger of accidents due to 
crowding. It also gives tlie cows more room to enter and leave 
their stalls in comfort and safety. 

In sale stables too it is desirable to have all the animals in 
sight from one point. They show up to better advantage. All 
things considered, there are mau}^ who prefer the out-facing 
system. Each plan has its own advantages, and both plans 
will continue to be followed by good dairymen. 

Ventilation of the Stable. — In a sense, air or the oxygen 
contained in it, is a food, since the carbon contained in the feed 
eaten cannot undergo oxidation and liberate heat and energy 
without it. Furthermore, body tissues are constantly wearing 
out and, in the form of carbon dioxide, are being thrown off 
largely in the exhaled air. Much moisture and some organic 
particles also escape from the body in the warm breath and in 
addition to these exhaled impurities, various gases, such as 
ammonia and marsh gas, are passed which aid in defiling the 
air. Molds and bacteria grow abundantly in straw and hay in 
an atmosphere so moist and full of organic matter. 

Diseases of all sorts are more liable to be spread and con- 
tracted, and to be intense in their action in a badly ventilated 
stable. Even if specific diseases are not present, however, a bad 
atmosphere is undesirable because it is depressing in every 
respect on both the stock and the laborers who must spend a 
portion of their time in it. 

The amount of air breathed by an average cow is given by 
King ^ as about 2800 cubic feet in 24 hours or about 224 pounds, 
— about twice the weight of feed and water required. This is 
not to say that all oxygen in such a volume of air was used. 

It is generally calculated that the stable should be sufficiently 

* King, F. H. Physics of Agriculture, Second Edition, p. 354. 



THE LOCATION OF THE FLUE 



185 



tin or galvanized iron, be covered over with boards. This insula- 
tion is to prevent the cold air of the hay loft from so cooling the 
out-going air as to check it, and turn it downward. The air 
inlets should be smaller and of greater number than the outlets. 
They consist of shorter shafts through which the air must rise 
before entering the barn. 






'K/ertk^^Kion 




'^^J^^kS.U^^^ 



Fig. 64. — Elevation Woodland Dairy Farm barn. Note system of ventilation. a, 
outlet in summer; b, outlet in winter; and d, inlet at all times. Also the dirt-tight floor 
over the stock. Straw for bedding as well as hay for feed is stored in the loft. 

The location of the flue would best be near the center of 
the stable. This permits a straight duct and encourages draught 
but may be against the walls and roof. In summer the warm 
air at the top of the stable may be drawn away, while in winter 
the suction may commence at the floor as shown in figure 64. 
The air inlets should be made in the walls so as to admit tlie fresh 



186 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM 

air near the top of the stable, just below the hay floor, or, if no 
hay is stored overhead, about seven feet from the floor. 

Much trouble has been experienced with the system if not 
properly installed. The author hesitates to recommend it or 
any other system to those who do not understand its principles. 
In practice, a thoughtful use of windows and muslin curtains 
will go a long way toward solving the problem. 

The muslin curtain at the window furnishes an economical 
and fairly eflicient means of drying the atmosphere of the stable 
and permits thorough mixing of fresh air with the old. If 
the muslin is fastened to a frame that may be slid into place it 
may often be used when the temperature or the wind would 
not permit windows to be opened with safety. On mild days, 
of which all parts of the United States have so many, the doors 
or top half of the doors and windows may be opened with safety 
and good results. Under some circumstances the muslin cur- 
tain is to be recommended over any other system. 

The temperature of the stable should, so far as possible, not 
be pennitted to go lower than about 45 and not much higher 
than about 70 degTees. A temperature of about 60 degrees 
seems to be the one best suited to dairy cows. A high tempera- 
ture, 85 degrees or above, causes the cow to lose her appetite, and 
gu " off feed " easily if being at all crowded. A cold tempera- 
ture in the stable, on the other hand, cools the cow's body just as 
it would any other w^arni object and requires that the cow make 
it up by eating more feed. The temperature must be main- 
tained ■ if life is to continue. ISTature's safety valve in this 
matter is tense muscles and shivering. Literally, therefore, a 
cold cow must shiver herself warm, as queer as this may sound. 
We all know how tired we feel in the morning after having 
" slept cold." We were tired because our muscles had been at 
work, drawn tense, to keep us warmer. 

Good light is necessary in the stable for ease in doing the 
work and for keeping it clean, as well as being desirable from the 
standpoint of the cow herself. Too much light, however, is 
wearying to any animal and thus expensive. The most serious 
objection to facing cows outward is that they will face more or 



THE DIMENSIONS OF THE STALLS 



187 



less directly against the windows. But if these are only mod- 
erate in numher and placed horizontally so that the bottom is 
about four and one-half feet from the floor, the light will not be 
severe on any and will be actually restful to all those located 
' between the windows. 

To make it lighter for work throughout the stable the whole 
interior may be whitewashed. In fact a good whitewashing 
applied by means of a spray pump to reach the crevices and 
cracks is to be recommended once or twice a year to kill disease 
and other germs. Many barns have been built, of late years, 
with so much glass surface as to be too warm on bright days 
and too cold on windy ones and at the same time not particu- 
larly well lighted because the interior was left in some dark color. 
A more wholesome and dependable condition can be procured 
by employing less glass and more whitewash. 

The dimensions of the stalls best suited to dairy cows nat- 
urally vary with the breed or rather the size of the cows to be 
fitted. The following table will indicate the needed distances: 



Name of Breed. 



Box Stall. 



Width of 
Single Stall. 



Distance from Manger 
to Gutter. 



Thick- 
ness ot 
Neck. 



Shorthorn 

Holstein-Friesian . 

Brown Swiss 

Ayrshire 

Guernsey 

Jersey 

Calves 



Feet 

10 X 12 

10 X 12 

10 X 12 

9 X 10 

9 X 10 

9 X 10 



3 ft. 6 in. 

3 ft. 6 in. 

3 ft. 10 in. 

3 ft. 3 in. 

3 ft. 3 in. 

3 ft. 3 in. 

2 ft. 3 in. 



4 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. 2 in. 
4 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 3 in. 
4 ft. 8 in. to 5 ft. 4 in. 
4 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. in. 
3 ft. 10 in. to 4 ft. 8 in. 
3 ft. 10 in. to 4 ft. 6 in. 



Inches 
5 to 7 

5 to 6 

6 to 8 
4 to 5 
4 to 5 
4 to 5 
3 to 4 



l^aturally, the breed of cows to be kept should be settled 
upon before the stable is built. 

It is found very convenient to have the width of the bed 
on which the cows stand vary from, say 5 feet 3 inches at one 
end to 4 feet 3 inches at the other, if Holsteins are kept, or from 
4 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 10 inches for Jerseys. In this way 
smaller cows of the breed or young stock may be placed at one 
end of the barn and larger ones at the other end, where they 
all will be kept clean. 

As to the width needed, many people try to save space and 
in doing so cramp the cows and surely cause them to be uncom- 



188 



SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM 



fortable. An increase in width of a Holstein cow's stall from 
3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 6 inches is as nothing compared with 
the commodious apartments generally provided beef cattle. 
Bodily comfort is true economy with dairy cows. 

The manger may very profitably be made of concrete, but 
care should bo taken to build up the bottom to at least one and 
better two inches higher level than the cow's feet. It should 
also be made to slant toward the cow in order that she may reach 
her feed without straining or slipping (Fig. 65). 




Fig. 65. — Note broad feed alley and .slant of windows. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Under what conditions may liay very properly be stored over cows? 

2. What material is best adapted for use as stable floors? 

3. What material should be used on the floor where the coavs stand ? 

4. Tell the advantages of facing the cows inward in the stable. 

5. What are the advantages or disadvantages of facing the cows outward? 

6. How may a stable most economically be lighted? 

7. What other advantages are to be gained by thorough whitewashing? 

8. Give the dimensions of stall best suited to the cows of various breeds. 

9. Explain the forces that cause a circulation of air in the King system 

of ventilation. 
10. Explain the use of the muslin curtain. 



CHAPTER XXII 

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

While it is not intended that this volume shall be a book on 
veterinary practice, it is well known that the regular herdsman 
or caretaker should be able quickly to recognize when his charges 
are out of health and be able to treat the commoner or simpler 
afflictions. These considered here are those most frequently 
to be dealt with, 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Tuberculosis is a widespread infectious disease caused by the 
bacteria of tuberculosis affecting man and lower animals. 

Occurrence. — Tuberculosis exists in all civilized countries. 
In America the disease was introduced with early importations 
of cattle and has gTadually spread until no section of the country 
is free from it. The exact percentage of tuberculous animals 
in any country is unknown, but the relative number has been 
determined by tuberculin testing and by post-mortem examina- 
tions in abattoirs. The Secretary of Agriculture, in his report for 
1908, estimated that one per cent of beef cattle and ten per cent 
of dairy cattle were tuberculous. 

Importance. — Tuberculosis is to-day the most serious prob- 
lem confronting the livestock industry. The disease is prob- 
ably not on the increase among cattle, but is becoming more 
prevalent among swine and poultry. Thousands of infants and 
young children receive cow's milk as their chief diet and it is 
usually consumed in the raw state. Milk from cows affected 
with tuberculosis often contains living vinilent bacilli of tuber- 
culosis. Children consuming this milk may develop tuberculosis, 
which is frequent cause of death. Scientific investigations show 
that a certain percentage of human tuberculosis is of bovine 
origin, the germs being transferred through the use of milk, 
butter, and cheese, or improperly cooked meat of animals. 

Nature of Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis is, as a rule, a 
chronic, insidious disease which spreads slowly from animal to 
animal in a herd until most of them are affected. Tuberculosis 

189 



190 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

develops very slowly and for this reason many owners of cattle 
do not suspect its presence in their herd until several animals 
have become diseased. If tuberculosis were rapid in its develop- 
ment and caused death within a few days like some of the other 
infectious diseases of cattle, rigid measures would soon be 
adopted in order to check its progress and dissemination. In 
many parts of our countiy it is customary to allow hogs to feed 
.in the dung of cattle. If the cattle be tuberculous, their manure 
Avill quite often be laden with virulent germs which, when 
taken up by the swine, cause them to become diseased. Especially 
is this so in herds where the disease has become extensive. 
Tuberculosis is not hereditary, but the offspring of tuberculons 
parents acquire a predisposition to the disease; i.e., they are 
more apt to become affected with tuberculosis when exposed to 
the infection than are the young born from healthy parents. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms or signs of tuberculosis are 
numerous and while some of them are quite suggestive of tuber- 
culosis, not one can be relied upon with any great degree of 
certainty in the establishment of a diagnosis. In some infectious 
diseases, certain symptoms occur which are characteristic of 
that disease alone. Characteristic symptoms or signs are not 
observed, however, in tuberculosis. Tuberculosis may be pres- 
ent in fat, sleek-looking cattle which show no symptoms of ill 
health (Fig. 66). Such cases can be detected by the tuberculin 
test only. The symptoms of tuberculosis vary according to the 
organ affected. In some instances unthriftiness and loss of 
flesh will be the chief symptoms observed (Fig. 67). When the 
lungs are diseased a rather wT^ak, subdued, infrequent cough 
will be noticed. This cough is most severe in the early morn- 
ing or after exercise, and after drinking, respiration becomes 
more difficult and at times quite rapid. The appetite gradually 
decreases and intestinal derangement develops. When the in- 
testines are diseased diarrhoea is a prominent symptom. En- 
largement of the superficial lymph glands in the region of the 
throat and neck are of frequent occurrence. A^Tien the glands 
of the chest hecome enlarged, sufficient pressure is at times 
exerted on the gullet or oesophagus to cause the animal to suffer 



SYMPTOMS 

Fig. 66. 



191 



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Fig. 66. — Cow in good condition and apparently healthy, yet tuberculous. (Courtesy of 

M. H. Reynolds.) 
Fig. 67. — Bull thin and unthrifty, due to the effects of tuberculosis. (Courtesy of 

M. H. Reynolds.) 



192 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

from bloat. Bloating, however, is not a frequent symptom. 
The body temperature may be normal, although we more fre- 
quently find it to be irregular, being inclined to be much higher 
in tlie evenings. Tuberculosis of the udder manifests itself 
by the formation of hard lumps or swellings in certain parts of 
the gland. Milk from such an udder should not be used, as it 
is quite apt to be laden with germs. 

The Manner by Which the Disease Spreads. — Tuberculous 
cows sooner or later give off the germs which may escape, by the 
mouth, the nose, in the milk, in the manure, and in the dis- 
charges from the genito-urinary organs. When the germs are 
thrown oif in any of the above-named ways, the disease is known 
as open tuberculosis. The germs discharged from 'the mouth 
and nose are coughed up from the lungs, some of which are 
swallowed while others are sprayed over the feed in front of the 
cow. Cows in adjoining stalls may take in these germs with 
the feed or the water and thus contract the disease. 

The manure and urine from tuberculous animals usually 
contain the germs and will spread the disease unless properly 
disposed of. Manure mixed with the germs of tuberculosis 
may fall into the milk pail or be carried to the milk direct by 
the cow's tail and thus contaminate the milk. The germs are 
not removed when the milk is strained. ^Mien the disease affects 
the udder the milk, as a rule, contains the germs in vast numbers. 
Such milk will readily transmit the disease to young animals. 
Milk of this kind is also very dangerous to young children. 

The Manner by Which a Herd Becomes Infected. — The 
principal ways through which tuberculosis niay be introduced 
into a herd are: First, through the buying of cattle from other 
herds infected with the disease. Buyers should purchase only 
from healthy herds in order to safeguard their healthy animals. 
Second, calves may become infected by feeding tliem milk, butter- 
milk, or whey from tuberculous cows. Such material should not 
be fed unless boiled or pasteurized. Third, by allowing healthy 
stock to mingle with diseased aniiuals. Fourth, by keeping cattle 
in poorly ventilated, insanitary, dark, and unclean quarters. 

Tuberculin Test — Only a small percentage of tuberculous 



WHAT IS TUBERCULIN? 193 

animals can be detected by a physical examination. In many 
cases only a few symptoms can be determined, and these are not 
characteristic, as they may also occnr in other diseases. The 
tuberculin test is very accurate and when skillfully employed 
detects the diseased animals practically without fail. 

What Is Tuberculin? — Tuberculin is a fluid containing the 
products (toxins) of the tubercle germ without the germs them- 
selves, therefore when tuberculin is injected into healthy cattle, 
it cannot cause tuberculosis. Tuberculin injected into tuber- 
culous animals causes a marked temperature disturbance. The 
tuberculin test may bo applied by three different methods: (1) 
The subcutaneous or temperature test; (2) the ophthalmic test, 
and (3) the intradermal test. 

The subcutaneous test is the oldest method and the one most 
commonly used, although the ophthalmic and the intradermal 
tests are thought to be just as accurate. 

Tuberculin, when injected into diseased cattle, causes them 
to become feverish within eight to sixteen hours after the tuber- 
culin is administered. The fever lasts a short time and then 
subsides. This temporary fever is called '' the reaction," and 
the animals so affected are called " reactors." 

In the subcutaneous test, tlie tuberculin is injected under 
the skin, preferably in the region of the neck. Two or three 
temperatures are taken, two or three hours apart, before the 
tuberculin is injected in order to ascertain the animal's normal 
temperature. Eight or nine hours following the administration 
of the tuberculin, the temperatures are again taken eveiy two 
hours until six temperatures have been recorded. The animals 
which are found to be feverish are regarded as being tuberculous. 

The o])hthalmic test consists in inserting a drop of tuberculin 
into the eye of the suspected animal. If the animal is healthy, 
no change takes place, but if affected with tuberculosis, the eye 
becomes reddened and waters profusely. 

The intradermal test consists in injecting a very small 

amount of tuberculin into (not under) the thin folds of the skin 

at the base of the tail. A reaction consists of the appearance of 

a swelling about the size of a walnut at the site of injection, 

13 



194 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

which remains for seventy-two hours or longer and disappears 
very slowly. 

Limitations of the Test. — The tuberculin test should not be 
applied to cows that have just calved, as the temperature at 
this time is apt to vary considerably from the normal. Calves 
under six months of age should not be tested, as their tempera- 
ture is quite changeable. Cattle in the advanced stages of 
tuberculosis sometimes fail to react to the test, but such cases can 
.usually be detected by a physical examination. Cattle that 
have just recently becoine infected may fail also to react. The 
tuberculin test, when employed by thorouglily competent men, is 
by far the most accurate method available for detecting tuber- 
culosis. The records of large numbers of tests made by govern- 
ment officials show that the tuberculin test is accurate in ninety 
to ninety-five per cent of animals tested (Fig. 68). 

INFECTIOUS ABORTION OF CATTLE 

Infectious abortion is a specific infectious disease produced 
l)y the germ, BacUJus abortus, and characterized by inflammation 
of the mucous lining of the uterus (womb) and foetal membranes 
resulting, as a rule, in the expulsion of tlie foetus (calf) in an 
immature condition. Infectious abortion is known also as con- 
tagious abortion, epizootic abortion, enzoiJtic abortion, and 
'' slinking " of calves. 

Cause. — The bacillus of al)ortion, which was described in 
1897 by Prof. Bang of Denmark, is a short nonmotile rod pos- 
sessing peculiar physical requirements which make it rather 
difficult to cultivate artificially. In the diseased cow the organ- 
ism lives in the mucous lining of the uterus (womb) and it is 
at times found in the milk of affected cows. Abortion bacilli 
inhabit the intestinal canal of the affected foetus. Outside of the 
animal body little is known of the organism. 

The Bacillus abortus is capable of producing aliortion experi- 
mentally in cattle, mares, sheep, goats and swine, by feeding and 
by injecting the organisms into the circulation. 

Susceptibility. — Infectious abortion is chiefly a disease of 
heifers, yet in given herds there will be certain periods in which 
all of the cows will abort regardless of age. Infectious abortion 
does not confine its ravages entirely to dairy breeds, but attacks 



HOW ABORTION BECOMES DISSEMINATED 195 

other breeds of cattle with little less severity. Many heifers 
will ahort once and tlien carry their second calf for the full 
period. A less number will abort their second calf and it is a 
rare condition w^hen a cow aborts the third time. Heifers from 
aborting mothers may be less susceptible than those bom to 
healthy or noninfected dams. 

The Manner by Which Abortion Becomes Disseminated. — 
The mucous lining- of the uterus of infected heifers and cows 
harbors the Bacillus ahorfus. The contents of the uterus, such 



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Fig. 6S. — Heifer, thin and in poor condition, though not affected with tubercvilosis. 
(Courtesy of M. H. Reynolds.) 

as the fa?tus, foetal membranes, and the fluids, are all yiruleut 
and when expelled from the uterus become vehicles by which the 
disease spreads. The discharge from the uterus following abor- 
tion contains myriads of bacilli (germs) which may be carried 
to various parts of the stable by aid of the surface drainage ; 
attendants may carry the infection on their boots or on the milk- 
ing utensils which are at times carelessly handled. The ■ bull 
is undoubtedly a frequent carrier of the infection, especially 
where several breeders use the same animal. Infected pregnant 
heifers or cows introduced into healthy herds are often responsi- 
ble for establishing new centers of the disease when they abort. 



196 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

This is probably the chief way by which the disease disseminates, 
as it is imposible to tell by a physical examination whether a 
cow is diseased or not. Milk from aborting cows may be a 
carrier of the infection. 

Natural Mode of Infection. — The rente by which the germ 
gains entrance to the animal body is a debatable question. Some 
authors hold that the open cervical canal at the time of oestrum is 
the chief avenue of infection, being introduced into the cervix 
and uteims at the time of copulation (breeding). ISTo doubt the 
bull is responsible for the transmission of the disease in a great 
many cases, especially is this true in herds where only one bull is 
used, he being allowed to serve both diseased and healthy cows. 
In abortion occurring among range cattle, the bull is probably 
responsible for carrying the infection from one cow to another, 
principally at the time of breeding. The digestive tube un- 
doubtedly acts as one of the chief channels of entrance, the infec- 
tion being obtained from contaminated feedstutfs, including 
pastures where diseased animals are allowed to gTaze. Artifi- 
cially the disease has been produced by injecting virident abor- 
tion bacilli into the veins and under the skin. It has been produced 
by feeding infected material. Abortion has also been produced 
by placing virulent material in the vagina of pregnant cows. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation in infectious abortion 
varies widely. In producing the disease expei'imentally certain 
workers have determined the average period of incubation to be 
approximately 130 days. The premonitory symptoms when 
noticed consist of doughy swellings of the ndder, and vulva, 
followed by a mucus-like odorless discharge from the vagina. 
The discharge may at times be streaked with blood, relaxation 
of the sacro-sciatic ligaments, restlessness and stamping of the 
hind feet. These symptoms usually appear one or two days 
before the abortion occurs. Occasionally heifers have been ob- 
served to make bag and even lactate at the fifth month of gesta- 
tion, the abortion not taking place until the seventh month or 
in its membranes, but when the abortion occurs after the fifth 
and sixth months of gestation it is not always indicative of abor- 
tion. Cows will be observed to abort suddenly without mani- 
festing premonitory symptoms. When heifers or cows abort in 



DIAGNOSIS 197 

the early stages of pregnancy the foetus will be expelled enclosed 
in its membranes, but when the abortion occurs after the fifth 
month of gestation the membranes (afterbirth) are usually 
retained. The large percentage of abortions take place between 
the fifth and seventh months of pregnancy, although abortion 
may occur any time during the period of gestation. Great ex- 
citement may be noticed in heifers following an abortion and at 
times will show all tlie signs of the heat period. The discharge 
from the uterus and vagina, following abortion, continues for 
two or more weeks, and may continue longer when the inflam- 
mation of the lining of the utenis becomes severe. The dis- 
charge is of a dirty, yellowish gray color, tenacious in character, 
and accunuilates on the tail and other parts to which it may come 
in contact. The appetite is impaired but gradually improves 
as they recover from the effects of the abortion. The milk flow 
is slight but increases gradually as the animal recovers. The 
foetus is, as a rule, born dead or if alive is weak and undersized 
and dies within a few days with symptoms of diarrhoea or re- 
mains in a stunted condition. Crises in which the foetus has be- 
come mummified occur in infectious abortion. Such cases are, 
however, rare. In a nmnber of cases, cows that have appar- 
ently recovered from the eftects of tlie disease fail to conceive 
though served by the bull numerous times before becoming im- 
pregnated, or may never again get with calf (non-breeders). 

Sterility in the greatest percentage of cases is probably 
due to pyometra (pus in the uterus), the result of retained 
placenta or afterbirth. In other cases the ovaries undergo cystic 
degeneration, which, if extensive, often causes the cow to be 
constantly bulling. Cases of this type are, as a rule, non- 
breeders. Sterility is one of the chief characteristics of 
infectious abortion. 

Diagnosis.^ — ^In a herd where several calves have been 
aborted in an immature condition, and especially if the aborting 
animals be heifers, one is usually justified in regarding the 
condition as infectious. The history, of course, should be taken 
into consideration. A^Tiere infectious abortion cannot be diag- 
nosed clinically, the following methods of diagnosis have been 
recommended: (1) Bacteriologic. (2) Serologic. 



198 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

Bacteriologic Diagnosis. — Microscopically best results may 
be obtained by examining smears prepared from the stomacli and 
intestines of the foetus soon after abortion. If small cocco- 
bacilli are present in large numbers, one is quite safe in consid- 
ering them as abortion bacilli. Cultures made from the stom- 
ach of the foetus give, in a large percentage of positive cases, 
cultures of BaciJhis abortus. 

Serologic Diagnosis. — The success of serum diagnosis in 
other diseases induced the various workers in veterinary pathol- 
ogy and bacteriology to apply the complement-fixation and ag- 
glutination tests to infectious abortion. The serum method of 
diagnosis is quite accurate in determining the presence of infec- 
tious abortion. All heifers or* cows affected with abortion fonn 
certain substances in their blood known as anti-bodies. By the 
aid of the complement-fixation or agglutination tests the greater 
percentage of these cases can be determined. Some cows may 
give positive reactions to the serum tests, yet not abort. The 
indication, however, is that they are or have been infected with 
the Bacilhis abortus. Positive reactions in herds where infec- 
tious abortion is unknown are rare. By the aid of the serum 
tests one can determine the extent of the disease in a herd. 

Prevention and Treatment. — As no drugs or medicinal 
agents have thus far been discovered for the cure of this dis- 
ease the treatment necessarily becomes preventive. In herds 
where abortion has recently appeared it is ad\asable to practice 
isolation of the aborting cows, not allowing them to come in con- 
tact with healthy cattle until all signs of disease have disap- 
peared. In cases of retained afterbirth, the same should be 
removed by the hand within 24 to 48 hours after the abortion. 
If the afterbirth does not come away readily it should not be 
forcibly removed but the uterus should be irrigated once daily 
with a warm disinfectant solution. The irrigation of the vagina 
and uterus can best be done by using a soft rubber tube, one 
end of which is introduced into the vagina with a funnel in the 
outer elevated end. About one gallon of one-fourth or one-half 
per cent solution of creolin, lysol, liquor cresolis, or a solution 
of potassium permanganate (1 to 1000 solution) should be 



MEDICINAL TREATMENT 199 

introduced into the womb. This procedure should be practiced 
once a day for 10 days. After this, twice a week as long as the 
discharge continues. Cows that have aborted should not be 
bred again within a period of three or four months after the 
abortion occurred. The foetus and the afterbirth of aborting 
cows contain innumerable bacteria, hence they should be burned 
or deeply buried. Unless this precaution is taken the infection 
will be carried from one place to another. Lime should be 
placed in the gutters to prevent the bacteria from spreading by 
surface drainage. Barns or stables that become infected should 
be thoroughly disinfected. The cattle should be removed and 
the bam left empty for four or five days. All bedding and 
litter should be removed and the walls and floors should be 
scrubbed and then sprayed with a strong disinfectant solution. 
One of the best disinfectants for stables is lime wash. To 
improve the germicidal properties of lime one may add six 
ounces of chloride of lime to every gallon of the lime wash. 
This mixture may best be applied by using a spray pump so that 
the disinfectant may be forced into the cracks and crevices. 

The bull may be prevented from carrying the infection by 
disinfecting the penis and sheath before and after each service. 
The long hair around the opening of the sheath should be 
clipped and the surrounding parts bathed with a mild anti- 
septic solution. 

In disinfecting the bull a small rubber hose will be found 
quite serviceable, one end of which is inserted into the sheath 
and held together by the hand so that the fluid will not imme- 
diately escape. In tlie other end of the hose a funnel is inserted 
into which the antiseptic solution is poured. In this way the 
sheath pouch may be easily irrigated. ]\Ei]d antiseptic solutions 
should be used for this purpose. Infectious abortion may be sup- 
pressed by maintaining strict preventive measures. 

Medicinal Treatment. — Many dnigs have been used in the 
treatment of abortion but none have proved to be of much value. 
Certain drugs have been given credit for preventing abortion 
in given herds, yet, no doubt, the same results would have been 
obtained had no medicine been used. Carbolic acid and meth- 



200 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

ylene blue have been used extensively in the treatment of abor- 
tion. Good results reported from the use of these drugs is 
probably due to the increased resistance or immunity to the 
disease which occurs after one or two abortions rather than the 
effects of the remedies themselves. 

Immunization.— Cows after aborting once or twice become 
more resistant to the disease and carry the calf to the normal 
termination of pregnancy. In this way the disease will gradu- 
ally exhaust itself, providing susceptible animals are not added to 
the herd. Because of the tendency toward natural immunity the 
problem of producing an artificial immunity presented itself. 
Living and dead cultures of abortion bacilli are being used in an 
attempt to produce artificial immunity in young heifers. 

MILK FEVEE (PAKTUKIENT PARESIS ) 

This is a disease peculiar to the cow, occurring at or near 
the time of calving. This disease as a rule confines itself almost 
entirely to the heavy milking breeds. Generally cows are 
afflicted at the third to fifth birth, although it may occur in 
cows bearing their first calf. Most cases occur during hot 
weather, and during rapid changes of weather. It may appear 
also during the coldest weather. Milk fever usually sets in from 
24 to 48 hours after birth of the calf, the maximum interval 
being several days. It rarely occurs at the time of birth. Iso- 
lated cases have been observed just before calving, but never 
before the secretion of milk had begun. 

Predisposing Causes. — Confinement in the stall predisposes 
to milk fever, partly because of lack of exercise, which is very 
essential in cows that are highly fed, and partly because of the 
air being hotter and at times impure. 

Constipation may become an accessory cause by increasing 
the volume and density of the blood with certain material that 
should pass off by the bowels. 

Mature age is a strong predisposing cause. The disease 
seldom, if ever, occurs with the first parturition and rarely with 
the second. It appears with the third, fourth, or fifth birth, 
when the cow has attained her normal grov/th and is converging 
all of her energies to the production of milk. 



SYMPTOMS 201 

. Calving is the chief predisposing factor. The manner in 
which it acts as an accessory has not been definitely detennined, 
but is thought to be due to alteration in blood supply. It is 
after easy calving when there has been little expenditure of 
muscular or neiwous energy that milk fever appears. Difficult 
parturitions which, as a rule, occur at the time of the first or 
second birth are rarely connected with parturient paralysis. 

Symptoms. — Milk fever usually begins with signs of rest- 
lesisness and occasional!}^ signs of brain irritation may be 
observed in the beginning. After these initial stages, the char- 
acteristic signs of depression and paralysis appear (Figs. 69 and 
70). First, the cow shows a weakness in the use of her hind 
parts ; and steps unsteadily or staggers when attempting to 
move or walk, may fall and struggle to rise again. The cow no 
longer notices her calf or her feed. The weakness increases 
and the cow lies down or falls and is unable to regain her feet. 
The animal's temperature, which becomes sub-normal, may be 
slightly raised at this period. The cow may lie on her breast- 
bone with her feet beneath the body, and her head turned 
round with the nose resting on the right or left, usually the 
left flank. In this position the cow appears to be asleep. In 
cases of extreme feebleness, the cow may lie on her side with all 
four legs stretched out. If an attempt is made to lift the head, 
it falls back powerless into its old position. The eyes appear 
glazed, and the pupils are widely dilated. The upper eyelid 
droops over the eyeball and is not moved when the eyeball is 
touched with the finger. At this time unconsciousness is usually 
complete. The tongue hangs loosely from the mouth, and breath- 
ing is performed with snoring, groaning, and rattling noises 
accompanied with great distention of the nostrils. The muscles 
of the bowels become paralyzed, causing obstinate constipation 
and at times bloating. This is usually accompanied by paralysis 
of the bladder muscles causing cessation of urination. If either 
or both of these organs continue to function, a favorable prog- 
nosis can usually be given. The temperature which may be 
raised at first becomes sub-normal. The pulse and heart-beats are 
quickened. The body temperature is unevenly distributed, the 
feet, ears, and horns being exceptionally cold to the touch. 



202 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 



Course. — The duration of the disease is brief and the results 
can usually be decided within a few hours. 



Fig. 69. 




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Fig. 70. 

Fig. 69. — Cow, showing symptoms of milk fever in the first stage. (Courtesy of M. H. 

Reynolds.) 

Fig. 70. — An advanced case of milk fever. 



INJECTING UDDER WITH ATMOSPHERIC AIR 203 

Preventive Treatment. — Heavy milking cows should be kept 
on a spare diet at least one week before calving and for four 
to five days after calving. Free access to salt and water are 
beneficial, as they tend to keep the bowels in good condition. 
One to one and one-half pounds of epsom salts may be admin- 
istered twelve to twenty-four hours before calving. In case this 
procedure is neglected, salts should be given soon after the cow 
calves and the labor pains have ceased. Daily exercise is of 
much importance. Rich feeds should be avoided. 

Another preventive measure consists of allowing the suscepti- 
ble cow to retain in the udder for twenty-four hours following 
parturition all the milk exce})t the quantity which is required 
by the calf, which amount should be taken, if possible, part from 
each quarter. 

Air Treatment. — The treatment of milk fever by the injec- 
tion of sterile atmospheric air into the udder has proved to be 
simple, practicable, and highly efficacious and results in no harm 
to the udder when properly performed. If antiseptic precau- 
tions are not observed and the injections performed in a careless 
way, disease-producing bacteria will often be introduced into the 
udder, causing mammitis (caked bag), a condition that may re- 
sult in the loss of one or more quarters of the bag and at times in 
death. The method of injecting filtered air into the udder is a 
comparatively easy procedure, requiring but little time, and is 
readily accomplished by the use of milk fever apparatus. A 
milk fever apparatus is inexpensive and if cared for carefully 
will last for years. 

Technique for Injecting the Udder with Filtered Atmos- 
pheric Air. — The teats and udder should be washed with soap 
and water, and then carefully disinfected with a three to five per 
cent solution of carbolic acid, lysol, creolin, or some other good 
antiseptic. A clean towel or sheet should then be placed under 
the udder to prevent the teats coming in contact with dirt or 
filth. The hands of the operator should be thoroughly washed 
witli soap and water. The milking tube with the lower piece of 
hose of the milk fever apparatus should be boiled fifteen to 
twenty minutes before using. The milking tube is then inserted 



204 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

into the opening of the teat and air is pumped into the quarter 
until it is sufficiently distended. Careful massage of the udder 
will allow the air to gain access to the innennost tubules. After 
the quarter is well distended, the tube is removed. The same 
treatment is applied to the other three teats until the udder is 
satisfactorily distended. In certain cases it will be found neces- 
sary to apply tape to the ends of the teats in order to keep the 
air from escaping. The pieces of tape should be removed within 
one or two hours so as to prevent sloughing. In case the air 
becomes absorbed, and no improvement is noticed within four or 
five hours, the treatment should be repeated, care being taken to 
observe the same antiseptic precautions as at first. The air may 
be left in the udder for twenty-four hours and when recovery 
is certain, it should be gradually milked out. The affected cow 
should not be allowed to lie on her side but kept up on the breast 
bone (sternum) so as to prevent the development of pneumonia. 
Simple cases of milk fever, especially in the beginning, may 
be successfully treated by the layman provided he observes 
strict antiseptic measures. Skilled veterinarians should be em- 
ployed, however, as they will obtain more satisfactory results. 
Especially is this true in the treatment of advanced and com- 
plicated cases. 

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 

This disease is also known as epizootic aphtha, aphtlious 
fever, infectious aphtha, and may be defined as an acute, highly 
contagious disease, characterized by the eruption of vesicles or 
blisters in the mouth, around the coronary bands of the feet 
and between the toes. Foot and mouth disease does not confine 
its ravages among cattle but attacks almost as readily all other 
cloven-hoofed animals. Horses, dogs, cats, and poultry at times 
become infected and cases have been reported wherein man was 
the victim. Foot and mouth disease is common in European 
countries, where it produces great losses. The actual mortality 
produced is low. However, serious losses occur from the 
diminution of the milk secretion and the loss of flesh. Foot and 
mouth disease spreads very rapidly and infects a large number 



SYMPTOMS OF FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 205 

of animals in a short period of time. Very little immunity is 
produced by foot and mouth disease, repeated attacks having 
been known to occur in the same animals. 

Foot and mouth disease has appeared in the United States 
on six ditferent occasions. The recent outbreak of 1914 was 
by far the most serious as well as the most extensive that has 
ever occurred in this country. All of the previous outbreaks 
were quickly and successfully eradicated. 

Cause. — The causative factor of foot and mouth disease has 
never been isolated or identified, although numerous attempts 
have been made to discover the specilic organism. The virus or 
the disease-producing material may be found in the blisters on 
the mouth, feet, udder and in the saliva, milk and various secre- 
tions and excretions, and in the blood, during the time when the 
temperature is high. Animals may become infected directly by 
licking, and in calves by sucking, or indirectly by infected hay, 
manure, drinking troughs, railway cars, stock-yards, barn-yards, 
and pastures. The time elapsing between the exposure of an 
animal to infection and the development of the disease in that 
animal varies usually from three to six days. The disease may 
appear in twenty-four hours, again in exceptional cases, not for 
eighteen days or longer. 

Symptoms. — In foot and mouth disease the early symptoms 
consist of spells of shivering or chilling, quickly followed by 
fever, causing the body to become exceedingly warm. The body 
temperature may be as high as 105 or 106 degrees F. These 
symptoms do not always occur, or may be in so mild a form as to 
escape notice. Following this in one or two days, small vesicles 
or blisters about the size of a pea will make their appearance 
upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue or on the 
lips or the margin of the dental pad. These small blisters are 
filled Avith a yellowish watery fluid and become more extensive 
as the disease progresses. Shortly after the eruptions have 
appeared in the mouth (Fig. 71), it will be noticed that there is 
considerable swelling and redness shown about the feet in the 
region of the coronet and between the toes. The formation of 



206 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

vesicles or blisters soon appears upon the swollen regions of the 
foot. In milch cows the ndder and especially the teats become 
affected witli vesicles or blisters. As the disease advances the 
affected animal evidences considerable pain when attempting to 
eat and in some cases on account of great pain will refuse feed 
of all kinds. Salivation becomes excessive and the animal 
opens and closes its mouth with a characteristic smacking sound. 
The saliva is ropy and tenacious and hangs suspended from the 
lips. The vesicles which are small at first become extended and 
rupture soon after their appearance, leaving reddened painful 
spots or sores both within the mouth and upon the feet. Similar 
spots or erosions will occur on the teats of milch cows. All 
four feet of an animal may become affected at the same time. 
Again one or more of tlie feet may escape the infection and 
remain normal throughout the course of the disease. The 
affected feet become very sore and painful, causing the animal to 
lie down a great deal. The disease when assuming a mild form 
usually runs its course in approximately thirty days. In case of 
milch cows the return of the secretion of milk is greatly retarded. 
In the more destructive form of the disease several months or a 
year may be required for an animal to recover. 

Diagnosis. — The foot and mouth disease is not difficult to 
recoffnize when it is known to exist in the vicinitv. The services 
of experts, however, are required in order to recognize or diag- 
nose the initial outbreaks. By inoculating calves with the 
virus from infected animals, the clinical diagnosis can be 
promptly and positively substantiated. 

Diseases That May Be Confused with Foot and Mouth. — 
After the blisters or vesicles in foot and mouth disease rupture 
the disease becomes more difficult to recognize, as other diseases 
of a less contagious nature have a similar appearance. Cow- 
pox may at times be confused with foot and mouth disease, but 
in cow-pox the eruptions of tlie pocks which become pustules 
have well-marked and defined stages. The eruptions in foot 
and mouth disease never become more than a vesicle. 

Necrotic Stomatitis (Sore Mouth Caused by Bacteria). — 
This disease may be differentiated from foot and mouth disease 



MYCOTIC STOMATITIS 



207 



by the fact tliat blisters do not occur in necrotic stomatitis and 
the ulcerated patches that appear in the beginning of the dis- 
ease, principally involving the mouth and tongue, become cov- 
ered with a yellovsdsh, cheesy-like material. Calves are more apt 
to become affected with sore mouth than are adult cattle. Foot 
and mouth disease spreads more rapidly through a herd than 
does necrotic stomatitis and affects cattle of all ages, also sheep 
and swine. 

Ergotism (poison from eating ergot) may be distinguished 
from foot and mouth disease in that the lesions occurring in 




Fig. 71. 



-A cow aSected with foot and mouth disease. Note the accumulation of saliva 
about the lips. (From report of the Bureau of Animal Industry.) 



ergotism are conlined to the ears, tail, and legs, usually below 
the knees or hocks. Vesicles or blisters do not occur in ergot 
poisoning, the lesions instead consisting of a dry-sloughing 
process. The tips of the ears will become dry and slough off. 
The tail may likewise become affected. The ankles swell con- 
siderably and later become circumscribed ^vith a deep crack or 
fissure entirely surrounding the ]eg as a result of the sloughing. 
Mycotic stomatitis (inflammation of the mouth caused by 
molds or fungi) is characterized by the formation of a croupous 
membrane or portions of the mucous lining of the mouth which 



208 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

peels off, leaving a raw surface. The skin between the toes may 
at times become inflamed. The absence of vesicles on the udder 
and teats as well as other parts of the body together with the 
slowness in which the infection spreads in a herd aids in dif- 
ferentiating this affection from foot and mouth disease. Mycotic 
stomatitis appears usually in late summer or early fall and 
attacks from ten to fifty per cent of the animals in a herd. 

Foul Foot (Foot Rot). — Foul foot, is not an infection.^ 
disease, but during warm wet seasons a number of cattle may 
become affected in a certain district, giving rise to the sus- 
picion on the part of some that it may be a disease of a con- 
tagious nature. Foul foot, as the name implies, is a disease 
of the feet only and the cause may be easily traced to filthy 
stalls and badly drained grounds. 

Prevention of Foot and Mouth Disease, — The highly infec- 
tious nature of the disease and the easy manner of its dissemina- 
tion require that rigid preventive measures be adopted to prevent 
its spread. Healthy cattle should bo giuirded carefully so as to 
privent them being exposed to the infection. In a community 
where an outbreak occurs owners should exercise every pre- 
caution in preventing other animals, such as dogs, cats, and 
poultry, from coming in contact with the diseased animals, 
as they furnish excellent means for disseminating the causative 
factor. The carcasses of affected animals must be destroyed, 
preferably by burning or by burying them in a hole eight or ten 
feet deep and covering them with air-slaked lime, so as to 
prevent earthworms and similar agents from carrying the virus 
to the surface. Infected stables should be thoroughly disin- 
fected with one of the following disinfectants: (1) a five per 
cent solution of pure carbolic acid. (2) Chloride of lime, U. 
S. P., one pound to three gallons of water. (3) Formaldehyde, 
one quart forty per cent solution to live gallons of water. (4) 
The application of lime wash to which is added chloride of lime 
in the ratio of six ounces of chloride of lime to each gallon of 
the lime wash is quite efficient. 

All stable utensils must be thoroughly cleansed and disin- 
fected with any of the above-named antiseptics. All manure 
should be burned or disinfected. The stables should not be 



LUMPY JAW (ACTINO-MYCOSIS) 206 

reoccui^ied withiu a period of sixty days following disinfectioii. 
The methods of eradication of foot and mouth disease as prac- 
ticed hy the United States Government consist of rigid quaran- 
tine, thorough disinfection and the purchasing and slaughtering 
of affected and exposed animals after proper appraisement. 

LUMPY JAW ( ACTINO-MYCOSIS ) 

This is a specific chronic infectious disease caused by a 
certain fungus (actinomyces) and characterized by the fonna- 
tion of tumorous masses in various parts of the body, more par- 
ticularly the head. The history of this fungus is not known, 
but it is thought that it passes a part of its life cycle on certain 
.grasses. The matured fungus has the appearance of a rosette 
and is commonly called " ray fungus." 

Distribution and Extent. — Actino-mycosis or lumpy jaw is 
quite prevalent in tlie United States. The extent of the disease 
varies in the different states. According to the twenty-fourth 
annual report of the Bureau of Animal Industry there were 
slaughtered in establishments having federal inspection, 7,621,- 
717 cattle, of which 22,7-1-2 were found to be affected with 
lumpy jaw. The actual percentage is even greater, for numer- 
ous animals affected with this disease are slaughtered where 
there is no official inspection maintained. 

Source of the Fungus. — The fungais which causes the dis- 
ease is probably most frequently obtained from vegetation, 
especially wild rye, barley, oats and other grains. Infection is 
thought to occur most often in animals fed on dry feed such 
as fodder, straw, or hay. It is questionable as to whether the 
disease may be transmitted directly from one animal to another, 
although certain instances have been recorded wherein the infec- 
tion apparently spread by actual contact. 

The causative fungus may gain entrance to the animal body 
by way of the digestive tract, the respiratory tract or through 
the skin. The digestive tract is the most frequent channel of 
entrance in cattle. Wounds of mucous lining of the. mouth, 
diseased teeth, or the shedding of milk teeth, provide an. en- 
trance for the causative fungus. The upper surface of the 
tongue, which is often injured by rough feeds, frequently affords 
14 



210 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

an entrance for the raj fiin^is. When the disease affects 
the tongne it is commonly known as " wooden tongne." Wounds 
of the skin resulting from rubbing on stanchions and feed 
boxes may be a source of infection in some instances. Infection 
by way of air passages is not of common occurrence. 

Location of the Disease. — The disease may be located both 
externally and internally. The fungus may invade and produce 
the disease in any tissue. It is most often found affecting the 
soft tissues and bones of the lower and upper jaw. Internally 
it may attack the tongue, pharynx, or larynx. It may also affect 
the lungs and more rarely tlie digestive tract; occasionally the 
udder is attacked. It is usually localized, and rarely if ever 
becomes generalized. ^^Taen affecting the soft tissue of the head 
the disease produces rather hard, firm swellings (abscesses) 
(Fig. 72), which vary in size, surrounded by a thick dense cap- 
sule. The abscesses tend to rupture finally and discharge a 
thick creamy pus. The pus contains small yellow bodies, 
which are commonly known as " sulphur granules." These 
are the " ray fungi." After the abscess has ruptured, the cavity 
does not disappear but is soon filled with fungus-like masses 
which protrude outward through the opening. In some in- 
stances the abscesses will appear in the form of a chain, extend- 
ing along the jaw and upper portion of the neck. When the 
abscesses form inside the throat, they seriously interfere with 
swallowing and respiration. Actino-mycosis of the bone is of 
common occurrence and must be regarded as one of the most 
serious foi-ms of the disease. The bone becomes disintegrated 
and pockets or cavities are formed. As the diseased process 
advances, there is new bone tissue fonned, causing the bone to 
become enlarged and have a honeycomb appearance. 

The disease of the tong-ue, " w^ooden tongue," ^s also a very 
serious form of the disease, as it interferes with the movement 
of this important organ of mastication. The course of the 
disease is quite slow. Emaciation in the affected animal results 
when mastication, rumination, or breathing is affected. The 
tong-ue and the bones of the jaws may become so badly diseased 
tliat death will result from starvation. 

Treatment. — When affected the soft structures of the lower 



INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER 



211 



and upper jaw may be satisfactorily treated, but when the 
bony tissue is diseased treatment is of less value. Potassium 
iodide, administered in the form of a drench once a day until 
symptoms of iodine poisoning" occur, has proved to be quite 
beneficial in the treatment of this disease. Abscesses located 
externally in the region of the head and neck require early 
attention in order to effect a cure. Operations of this kind can 
only be undertaken by skilled veterinarians. 




Fig. 72. — Cow badly affected with lumpy jaw, unthriftiness due to the mechanical difficulty 
in eating. (Courtesy of M. H. Reynolds.) 

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER 

Mammitis is the veterinarian's name for inflammation of 
the udder. Aggravated cases of garget may at times terminate 
in active inflammation. Mammitis may occur also directly in 
connection with injuries, such as blows on the udder with clubs, 
homs, or feet, or from nails in the floor. Over-feeding, ex- 
posure to extreme changes of weather, indigestion, and insuffi- 
cient stripping of the udder during milking may also cause 
the udder to become inflamed. 

Symptoms. — In cases of mammitis following exposure, the 
early symptoms noted consist of spells of shivering. The tail. 



212 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

ears, and limbs become cold and the hair in general is erect. 
This condition is soon followed by fever and the body becomes 
umiatnrally warm. The muzzle becomes hot and dry, the 
temperature rises, rapid pulse, excited breathing, impaired 
appetite, cessation of rumination, and constipation. The udder 
swells and becomes hard in one, two, three, or all four quarters 
and the yield of milk is greatly lessened, at times becoming 
entirely suppressed in the affected quarter or quarters. As 
the inflammatory process extends, the udder becomes painfully 
tender, causing the animal to straddle with its hind legs when 
walking. In cases where the supporting tissue or framework of 
the udder is inflamed, the swelling is rounded and uniform and 
pits on pressure. In cases where the secreting portion of the 
gland becomes inflamed, the swelling is more localized and 
appears as hard, nodular masses, deep in the gland. In all 
cases the milk is suppressed and replaced by a watery fluid 
which is at times streaked with blood and mixed with clots of 
casein. Later it becomes thickened and is usually accompanied 
by an oft'ensive odor, due to pus formation. 

The course of the disease varies, some cases lasting only a 
few days, while others will last several days or even weeks before 
the inflammation has subsided and the gland restored to its 
normal condition. Many cases terminate in complete recovery. 
Others result in only partial recovery with arrested secretion 
in one or more quarters. When this occurs, the afl^ected portion 
shrinks to a smaller size. In quite a number of cases, hard, 
fibrous masses result, which cause permanent induration (hard- 
ening). In other cases abscesses (boils) will develop. The 
abscess may empty itself on the external surface or it may 
break into the milk ducts and be discharged through the teats. 

Treatment. — Treatment will be found to vary in accordance 
with the stages of the disease. 

Internally, laxatives are indicated. Epsom salts, one to 
two pounds, with an ounce of ginger dissolved in a quart of 
water and administered as a drench, will be found efficacious. 
After the purgative action has ceased, one ounce of saltpeter 
may be given once a day. Local treatment consists of hot 
fomentations and gentle but frequent massage. Cloths wrung 



COW-POX 213 

out of warm water should be applied to the udder for an hour 
or two at a time. The application of camphorated vaseline or 
lard may be used with good effect. In case of abscess forma- 
tion early lancing is recommended. Frequent milking is neces- 
sary in order to get the best results and the affected cow should 
be milked at least five or six times a day. 

GARGET 

This is a condition that often occurs in heavy milkers just 
before or after calving. The udder becomes enlarged and is 
hot and tender. At times a doughy swelling will be noticed to 
extend from the udder forward along the lower surface of the 
abdomen. This condition is physiological and the congestion 
usually disappears within a few days after the secretion of milk 
beffins. Garget becomes aggravated when the animal is allowed 
to stand in a draft of cold air or when compelled to lie on 
unprotected cold cement or on wet floors. Incomplete milking 
is probably the most frequent cause of garget even with cows 
far along in milk. In some cases doughy swellings will occur 
on the surface of the gland and the milk may be tinged or 
streaked with blood and is usually stringy and clotted when 
drawm. Such milk is unfit for food, but one gargetty quarter 
does not spoil the milk of the remaining three quarters. 

Treatment. — The affected animal should be placed in a dry, 
clean, and well ventilated stall and the udder lightly massaged 
with the finger-tips. The application of hot cloths around the 
affected parts aids in restoring proper circulation and in this way 
prevents or w^ards off" inflammation. The application of turpen- 
tine and lard, or, better still, camphorated vaseline, will be 
found beneficial, and wall aid materially in restoring the gland 
to its nonnal condition. The administration of epsom salts 
as a laxative is advised, especially in cases where the bowels are 
inclined to be sluggish. 

COW-POX 

Cow-pox is an infectious disease of the udder, characterized 
by inflammation and the formation of vesicles or blisters which 
undergo certain well-marked changes. The disease spreads 



214 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

very slowly from animal to animal, but will spread readily by 
the hands of the milker. Cow-pox is very closely associated 
with human small-pox. 

Cases of cow-pox have been reported to occur in cows that 
had been milked by persons affected with small-pox. Young, 
healtliy calves are used for tlie production of small-pox vaccine. 

Cause. — The cause of cow-pox has not yet been determined. 
It is thought to be due, however, to germs (bacteria) which are 
ultra-microscopic, too small to be seen by aid of the microscope. 

Symptoms. — Cow-pox is usually accompanied by a slight 
elevation of temperature. This condition is not, however, 
always constant. The age of the cow is an important factor in 
making a diagnosis, as the disease affects chiefly young cows. 
The milk flow may or may not be decreased. The eruptions of 
the vesicles (blisters) occur on the teats and the adjoining- 
parts of the udder. The development of the pocks are divided 
into well-marked characteristic stages. The first stage of the 
eruption consists of pink-colored pimples about the size of a 
pea. The pimple subsequently changes into a blister which 
contains a sticky, whitish fluid. The blisters on the teats vary 
in form, while the ones on the udder are circular and show a 
depression in the center. The blisters vary in size, some meas- 
uring as much as one-half to one inch in diameter. Wlien the 
pocks occur on the surface covered with long hair, they do not 
form blisters, but discharge a straw-colored fluid which cements 
the hair and forms a brownish-yellow mass. The blisters ma- 
ture about the tenth day and then dry up into a dark brown 
crust which drops oft" a few days later, leaving a scar. Many of 
the pocks are ruptured during milking, causing the frequent 
formation of angry-looking sores which heal slowly. Only in 
rarer cases does the disease affect other parts of the body. 

Treatment. — Local treatment is all that is required. A 
separate attendant should be provided to care for the diseased 
animals. They should bo milked carefully so that the blisters 
will not become ruptured. The persistent sores may be washed 
with mild antiseptic solutions. The attendant should keep his 
hands and arms washed with an antiseptic. Application of zinc 
oxide ointment to the ruptured pocks will be beneficial. 



CHAPPED TEATS 215 

CHAPPED TEATS 

The condition, chapped teats, is quite common during the 
winter season and is due to excessive local irritation of the 
teats. The sucking of the calf, and sudden chilling of the teat 
after the calf has finished, will often produce a chapped con- 
dition. Cows kept in cold, dam}) stalls often suffer from 
chapped teats due to the teats and udder coming in contact with 
water and filth when the cow is lying down. Sudden exposure 
to cold after the completion of milking with wet hands will 
also cause this condition. Chapped teats may be either mild 
or severe in form, depending upon the amount and the nature 
of the irritant. In mild cases the fissures (cracks) are small, 
and the ficw of milk is unaltered, while in severe cases the 
fissures may form large gaping wounds (sores) which, at times, 
will cause a retention of the milk and even inflammation of the 
udder (mammitis). 

Treatment. — The affected animal should be placed in a 
clean, dry, warm stall, and great care should be exercised when 
milking so as to allow the wound to heal. The use of vaseline 
is recommended because of its soothing effect on the chapped 
areas. In cases where healing, is tardy, the application of mild 
antiseptic solution will be found beneficial, 

WAKTS (pAPILLOMATA) 

Treatment. — Warts may be greatly benefited or entirely 
are frequently located on the surface skin of the teats. They 
are not only unsightly, but often become very troublesome. 
.Warts occurring on the teats of heifers are essentially benign 
and as a rule respond readily to treatment. 

Treatment. — Warts may be greatly benefitted or entirely 
removed by the application of pure olive oil, the oil being 
generously smeared over the surface of the warts after each 
milking. Persistent warts require surgical interference. 

BLOATING (hOVEN) 

This is a disease characterized by swelling or distention of 
the left flank, and is caused by the formation of gas in the 
rumen or paunch. 



216 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

Causes. — Some animals are predisposed to bloating by the 
habit of over-eating or eating too quickly. The chief cause, 
however, is the introduction into the stomach of large quantities 
of feed which ferments and produces great volumes of gases. 
Bloating is caused most frequently by eating green feed. It is 
also caused by sudden changing from dry fodder to green corn, 
by feeding on rank, luxuriant grass or clover, wet or frozen 
roots, rotten potatoes, or by allowing cattle to drink large quan- 
tities of water soon after feeding. Bloating caused by eating 
young clover is quite common, occurring mostly when the cattle 
are first allowed to feed on it. Clover is not so apt to produce 
bloating after it has blossomed. Calves suffering from indiges- 
tion often develop hoven. 

Symptoms. — The chief and characteristic symptom of bloat- 
ing consists of a swelling in the region of the left flank, from 
which a drum-like sound is emitted when struck with the 
finger-tips. 

The normal sounds of the rumen cease and the appetite and 
rumination (chewing of the cud) are suspended. Frequent 
passages of small amounts of manure occur at first, but gradu- 
ally cease until no further passages are noticed. The animal 
has an anxious expression, luoves uneasily, as if in great dis- 
tress, the back is frequently arched and the breathing is rapid 
and difficult. As the bloating increases, the breathing becomes 
more laborious and the animal experiences great difficulty in 
retaining its equilibrium, and if not relieved within a short 
time, falls down and suffocates. Frothing at the mouth, together 
with occasional belching of gas, are frequent symptoms. 

Course of the Disease. — The course of acute bloating is 
very rapid. If the rumen is only moderately distended the 
animal may recover unaided, while in severe cases the animal 
may die in an hour or so if not relieved. 

Treatment. — As regards prevention, one should avoid the 
sudden changing from dry to green feed, and cut green feed 
should not be fed after it has begun to ferment. Cattle should 
be allowed to pasture only for a short time on clover, at first, 
and the feeding of frozen, watery feeds should be avoided. 



SIMPLE DIARRHEA IN CALVES 217 

Mild cases of hoven may be successfully treated by placing a 
rope or straw band smeared with tar or some other nauseous 
material in the animal's mouth, securing it by tying behind the 
horns. Vigorous massage on the left flank tends to relieve the 
distended paunch and is practiced with good results in cases 
which are not severe. In severe cases the trocar and cannula 
should be used without delay. To puncture the rumen (paunch) 
a spot should be selected that is equally distant from the last 
rib, the hip-bone, and the transverse processes of the lumbar 
vertebra? (Fig. 73). The trocar should be held so that the 
sharp point is directed downward, inward, and slightly forward 
when by a sharp blow with the palm of the hand it is plunged 
into the paunch. A previous incision about one-half inch in 
length through the skin makes the operation easier. The can- 
nula or sheath of the trocar should be allowed to remain in the 
paunch as long as any gas escapes from it. If the cannula is 
removed while gas is still forming in the paunch it may become 
necessary to insert it again. In obstinate cases it is sometimes 
necessary to leave the cannula in the paunch for several hours. 
When a trocar is not obtainable, the operation may be performed 
with a knife. After the bloating has subsided, it is advisable 
to drench the animal with a pound or a pound and one-half of 
epsom or Glauber salts. A recent bulletin issued by the Ken- 
tucky Station recommends the use of formalin for the treat- 
ment of bloat, when caused by clover. They advise drenching 
the affected animal with one quart of a one and one-half per 
cent solution of formalin in water. 

SIMPLE DIARIUIKA (sCOUKlXo) I.\ CALVES 

Scours in calves is a rather common disease and is usually 
caused by improper diet. The disease, white scours, is in- 
fectious in nature and while occurring quite often, is not nearlv 
so common as the simple form. 

' Causes. — Simple scouring is a common result of indigestion 
caused by a too liberal supply of milk or too rich milk. Scour- 



218 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 



ing often results from allowing too much time between meals. 
Unhygienic conditions, such as dirty, sour drinking tanks or 
dark, cold, damp or foul-smelling stalls or pens, tend to produce 
scours. Faulty weaning, such as too early feeding on dry, 
coarse feed and feeds that contain large amounts of starchy 
material, are causative factors. The physical condition of the 
cow bears a close relation to the health of her suckling and care 
should be used in providing her with proper feed and care so 




1 iG. ,o.— The A lutiicaLeo the jjuiiit vilicie the wall of flank and rumen are punctured with 
trocar and cannula in "bloat." 

as to prevent the quality of the milk from becoming impaired, 
and the quantity diminished. 

Intestinal parasites (worms) may at times produce diar- 
rhea by irritating the mucous lining of the stomach and 
intestines. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms usually occur suddenly, 
although they may come on gradually. In sucklings, the 
sjTnptoms of diarrhea (scouring) may be preceded by: De^ 



SYMPTOMS 219 

pression, weakness, and disinclination to suck. When the dis- 
ease is due to improper diet or exposure, symptoms of chilling 
followed by fever will be noticed. ' The body temperature is 
unevenly distributed, the legs being cold and the muzzle dry. 
The diarrhoea which soon sets in consists of rather pasty 
manure of normal color and odor, at first, but rapidly becomes 
watery and is light gray in color accompanied by a peculiarly 
characteristic and offensive odor. As the disease advances, the 
passages become numerous, and the tail and legs become stained 
v;ith the dung which clings to the hair and skin. The dung 
will be frequently passed in the form of a jet or liquid stream. 
Bloating is commonly noticed; and colicky symptoms are not 
rare. Toward the end, the animal stands with its back arched. 
The skin becomes dry and the odor given off by the various 
channels is very offensive, and tlie animal becomes weak and 
listless. During the later stages the dung at times becomes 
streaked with blood. The course of the disease may be acute 
or chronic. The affected animal may die within a few days or 
may live for several weeks. When death occurs, it is usually due 
to exhaustion and lung complications (pneumonia). 

Prevention. — Wien diaiThea occurs in the suckling, the 
treatment should be mainly applied to the mother. The cow 
should be supplied with a proper diet and all factors which un- 
favorably influence the quality of the milk should be removed. 
In case the mother is suffering from disease, the calf should 
be permitted to suckle a healthy cow. When diarrhea is due 
to improper feeding, the error should be corrected immediately. 
Hygienic measures such as proper light, ventilation and clean- 
liness applied to calf pens, tend to keep the calf in good health 
and prevent disease. Exercise is also of much importance. 
Calves fed from pails are in danger of developing scours, unless 
absolute cleanliness is maintained. The feeder has to be on 
the alert also so as to prevent greedy calves from di'inking an 
over-amount of milk. 

Treatment. — The early administrations of laxatives are in- 
dicated in order to remove irritating substances from the bowels. 
For this purpose, castor oil in one or two-ounce doses is recom- 



220 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

mended. The calf's ration of milk should be reduced one-half, 
and in cases where the milk does not ag'ree with the aflfected 
animal, harley gruel to which raw eggs are added, may be 
substituted. A mild solution of formalin, which is mixed with 
the milk, is quite efficacious for the treatment of this disease. 

KINGWOEM (bald SCAb) 

. . . . \ 

Ring-worm is a highly contagious, transmissible disease of 
the skin caused by a vegetable parasite (Tinea Tonsurans). 
This disease affects the root and shaft of the hair, causing it to 
become brittle and finally fall out. Calves are commonly 
affected, especially during winter and spring. 

Ringworm is communicable to man. 

Symptoms. — Ringworm is manifested by the formation of 
circular hairless patches, on the skin of the head, neck and 
extremities. The patches vary in size, some being about the 
size of a pea, while others will measure an inch or more across. 
The patches or spots are usually scattered, although they may 
run together, forming large ones. The skin becomes slightly 
inflamed and the exudate, which is of a sticky nature, forms 
dry, brittle and scaly crusts of a greyish color. Occasionally 
the entire skin of the body will become affected, which may result 
in complete nakedness. In sucking calves the patches form 
mainly around the mouth. The disease is attended by itching 
which is manifested by rubbing in the affected animal. Any 
animal so affected is uncomfortable, restless and does poorly. 

Treatment. — Preventive measures consist of removal of 
affected animals, cleaning and disinfection of stalls. The 
affected patches or spots should be washed with soap and water 
so as to remove all crusts and after drying, tincture of iodine 
may be applied by painting the diseased areas. The treatment 
may be applied once daily. Tf attended to faithfully recovery 
should be complete in four to six weeks. 



QUESTIONS 221 

1. How general is the disease, bovine tuberculosis? 

2. How is its presence detected? 

3. What dangers to the herd would result if one tubercular cow were 

allowed to mingle freely with the herd? 

4. What is tuberculin used for? 

5. What is infectious abortion? 
G. What are its symptoms? 

7. How does abortion affect the milk How following? 

8. How is the disease spread? 

9. What means may be taken to prevent its spread? 

10. How should an aborting cow and the dead calf be handled? 

11. What treatment is recommended for the affected animal? 

12. What is milk fever? 

13. What are its symptoms (signs) ? 

14. How should a case of milk fever be treated? 

15. How should a heavy milking cow be handled to reduce the danger of 

milk fever to the least possible point' 

16. How damaging is the foot and mouth disease? 

17. What are the symptoms of this disease? 

18. How is it spread? 

19. What means should be taken to cheek an epidemic? 

20. What is ergotism? 

21. What conditions bring about foul rot in the feet of cattle? 

22. What are the symptoms of mammitis? 

23. W^hat causes the trouble? 

24. What is the best treatment for it? 

25. What treatment is advised for garget? 

26. How is cow-pox spread? How cured? 

27. How should chapped teats be cared for? 

28. What may be done to remove warts on cows' teats? 

29. What brings on hoven in cattle? 

30. What is the best treatment? 

31. What conditions of feed cause scours in calves? 

32. What conditions in stalls or pen aggravate the case? 

33. How should calves suffering with common scours be handled? 

34. How may ringworm be cured? 



PART IV 
WINTER FEEDING 



CHAPTER XXIII 
WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 

Of all the problems confronting the keepers of the twenty- 
two million cows in America kept for dairy purposes, adequate 
and proper feeding is the most important at the present time. 
Possibly because of the great variety of conditions and feed 
stuffs, the knowledge of the best methods of feeding has been 
very slow of development. Many discouraging statements have 
been made regarding the productive capacity of the " average " 
cow in the United States. It is true that the average yield is 
far below the amount obtained by the good dairy cows and only 
a fraction of that produced by the few outstanding leaders. 
This difference is not by any means wholly due to the incapacity 
of the cows themselves to do better work. The fact that many 
of them are miserably under-fed and often housed in uncom- 
fortable quarters has much to do A^ath the situation. In an en- 
deavor such as inducing cows to give more milk, one will not go 
far wrong if one will study the cows' requirements on the basis of 
what they receive when doing their best work and then imitate or 
duplicate as nearly as possible those conditions tlie year round. 

Copy Nature. — Cows, while living under a more or less 
wild condition, usually freshen in the early spring and produce 
the greatest flow of milk during the latter part of May, June, 
and the first half of July. By studying the conditions of this 
season of the year and desiring to duplicate them at a season when 
butter fat is most valuable per pound and when field work is light 
or lacking altogether, we may find a way to more profit. 

Analyzing the question we note that there are several factors 
influencing the returns. 

Time of Calving. — Although cows may be said naturally to 
calve in the spring, they very readily adapt themselves to fall 
calving. In this respect then we may arrange for a spring- 
time flow of milk in winter. 

15 225 



226 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 

Comfort of body, present in the early summer to the greatest 
degree, is essential to liberal production. In order that the 
cow under artificial circumstances shall be as productive as her 
inherited nature will permit, complete comfort, both in tem- 
joerature of stable and in sleeping quarters, is necessarily re- 
quired for winter. 

Very comfortable stables are now in use and becoming more 
common. The temperature of sunimer may be closely duplicated 
in winter. 



T w///mm////m mmmm/r 



n 



Fig. 74. — Illustrating the economy of liberal feeding. 

Abundance of Feed. — Even with the heavy stocking of 
pastures practiced in many parts of the country there is usually 
a great abundance of feed for the cows for a few weeks and it 
is observed that during this period of abundance the cows yield 
milk most liberally and we find that logic, experience and scien- 
tific findings all agree that any animal, to produce freely, 
must be freely fed. The value of mere abundance of feed may 
be well illustrated in the diagram (Fig. 74) in which let the 
upper bar indicated by the length of the line A C be the amount 
of feed given to cow ISTo. 1, and the lower line D H, the amount 
of feed given to cow l^o. 2, of equal weight and form. These 
two cows, for the maintenance of their bodies, will consume or 
burn daily a quantity of feed represented by the distances A B 
and D E, respectively. The maintenance amount of feed is a 
fairly constant quantity. 

It is evident that cow ISTo. 1 will have a balance of feed over 
and above the amount for maintenance represented by the short 
line B 0, whereas Cow IsTo. 2 receives the amount of surplus 
feed presented by the line E H, the same being three times as 



SUCCULENCE 227 

great as B C. Cow No. 2 has not received three times as much 
feed by any means, but the surplus remaining for milk forma- 
tion after maintenance has been subtracted, is three times as 
great. It is evident, therefore, that the first portion of the feed 
given to a cow is essentially wasted unless an additional amount 
is given from which milk may be formed. Cows do not create 
the substance of milk, they merely change its form from that of 
grass, hay and grain to that of milk sugar, milk fat, casein, 
albumen and ash. The Scotch have a saying, " Give to a steer 
a gallon of meal and it is a gallon wasted, give him two and he 
will pay for three." There is truth in it. 

Palatability. — Mere abundance, however, is not all the animal 
needs by any means. A cow might be tied to a straw stack and 
starve to death. In addition, the feed must be palatable in order 
to be consumed in suificient quantities and be most valuable. 
Feed eaten with repugnance might often better have remained 
uneaten so far as any good to the animal is concerned. 

Fresh grass is about the most palatable feed to cattle and 
large quantities are eaten while it is tender. Winter hay may 
often be made more valuable by sprinkling it with salty water 
or molasses water to make it more palatable. 

Succulence is unquestionably one of the qualities of early 
summer grass which materially assists the cow in heavy pro- 
duction. This quality in the mnter's feed may be provided 
in ample measure in the form of com silage or, when such is 
not available, in tlie form of mangles, nita-bagas, or other 
roots, or potatoes. The succulent quality in feed is of value in 
several ways. The cow is induced thereby to consume a larger 
amount and that which she does consume is more easily mas- 
ticated and more easily and economically digested, thus more 
valuable per unit of feed material present. If to the succulent 
quality there can be retained or added the flavors particularly 
relished by cows, such for instance as well made corn silage, 
the digestion of these feeds is facilitated by the fact. Over 
ripe hay and dry com stover are so hard that their net value to 
the animal is only a half or less of the apparent value as in- 
dicated by a table of digestible nutrients. 



228 



WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 



One value of the silo is that hj its means the corn is not 
only cut iine and some chewing thus saved, but it is soaked soft 
and mellow, assisting the cow in the work of reduction (Fig. 75). 

Balance of Nutrients. — One of the most important features 
influencing the matter of large and economical yields of milk is 
the balance of the nutrients in the feed given. It is in this 
phase of the subject that most feeders make the most serious 
mistakes. The need of any mature cow for feed may be briefly 
stated as the demand for small quantities of various ash ma- 
terials to maintain the bone of the body, to furnish ash to the 
milk, and for other purposes. The quantity and nature of the 
ash are nearly, if not quite, amply provided by a mixed rough- 




FlG. 75. — Art and utility may be successfully combined. Dairy stable and two silos 
belonging to E. H. Sears. 

age and grain ration, especially if a small quantity of bone meal 
is mixed with the cow's salt. The cow, however, contains large 
quantities of muscular tissue or lean meat which is slowly but 
continually wearing out and being voided from the system. To 
make good this loss, materials of like character must be pro- 
vided. Lean meat is composed very largely of proteins. Plants 
contain protein, not of identical character, but similar, and 
under nonual conditions it is only from the plant protein that 
animal tissue is built. Milk contains about 3.50 pounds pro- 
tein in eveiy 100 pounds. Cows, therefore, require especially 
liberal amounts of protein in their rations. 

A third element required is heat and energy. Some heat is 



THE MAINTENANCE RATION 229 

obtained from the protein nutrients, but it is needed in- such 
amount that to provide all of it in tlie form of protein would be 
too expensive and injurious to the cow. The starchy and 
sugary portions of feeds provide energy and heat most cheaply. 
ThQ fat or oil of corn, hay or other feeds goes, likewise, to the 
supply of heat and energy. But since the heating power of a 
feed nutrient is indicated largely by the percentage amount of 
carbon in its compound, and fat is so much richer in this ele- 
ment than starch or sugar, it, fat, has about 2.25 times more 
heating power than starch. The fat of the animal body is not 
necessarily made from the fat of plants but oily feeds naturally 
encourage the laying on of fat. For convenience the purely 
heat and energy-bearing feeds, such as starch and sugar, are 
called carbohydrates, while all fats are grouped by themselves. 

It is customary to classify all needed feed nutrients as pro- 
tein, carbohydrate and fat. These are the three constituents 
which we must provide in the cow's winter ration if she is to 
yield milk in winter as freely as in summer. 

The maintenance ration is the name given to the amount of 
feed which is required to just sustain the weight of an animal 
for twenty-four hours. On a perfect maintenance ration an ani- 
mal will neither gain nor lose weight. The amount of feed needed 
by large cows is naturally greater than that required for small 
ones, and that by very active animals greater than for slower mo- 
tioned ones. Just how much of the three digestible nutrients, pro- 
tein, carbohydrates and fats, a cow of 1000 pounds' weight re- 
quires was studied first in Germany, but the figures obtained there 
were too high to l)e accurate under American conditions. 

The standard now most largely used in this country is the 
one settled upon by Haecker of the Minnesota Station after 
many years of careful work and is as follows: Digestible pro- 
tein 0.7 pounds, digestible carbohydrates 7.0 pounds, and diges- 
tible fat 0.1 pound per 24 hours, for an average cow of 1000 
pounds, where kept under good practical stable conditions. 

The following table gives the nutrients allowed daily for 
the maintenance feed for cows of given weights, ranging from 
800 pounds to 1625 pounds.^ 
^Mmn. Bill. 13(\ 



230 



WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 

Table I. Feed of Maintenance 



Weight 


Protein ( 


Z^arbohydrate 


18 Fat 


Weight 


Protein Carbohydratea 


Fat 


800 


.560 


5.60 


.08 


1225 


.857 


8.57 


.12 


825 


.577 


5.77' 


.08 


1250 


.875 


8.75 


.12 


850 


.595 


5.95 


.08 


1275 


.892 


8.92 


.13 


875 


.612 


6.12 


.09 


1300 


.910 


9.10 


.13 


900 


.630 


6.30 


.09 


1325 


.927 


9.27 


.13 


925 


.647 


6.47 


.09 


1350 


.945 


9.45 


.13 


950 


.665 


6.65 


.09 


1375 


.962 


9.62 


.14 


975 


.682 


6.82 


.10 


1400 


.980 


9.80 


.14 


1000 


.700 


7.00 


.10 


1425 


.997 


9.97 


.14 


1025 


.717 


7.17 


.10 


1450 


1.015 


10.15 


.14 


1050 


.735 


7.35 


.10 


1475 


1.032' 


10.32 


.15 


1075 


.752 


7.52 


.11 


1500 


1.050 


10.50 


.15 


1100 


.770 


7.70 


.11 


1525 


1.067 


10.67 


.15 


1125 


.787 


7.87 


.11 


1550 


1.085 


10.85 


.15 


1150 


.805 


8.05 


.11 


1575 


1.102 


11.02 


.16 


1175 


.822 


8.22 


.12 


1600 


1.120 


11.20 


.16 


1200 


.840 


8.40 


.12 


1025 


1.137 


11.36 


.16 



Ration for Milk Production ( The Haecker Feeding Stand- 
ard). — For many years the only available standard or guide 
in feeding for milk production was that of Wolf, later modified 
by Lehmann, which standard took into account only roughly 
the amount of milk yielded per day and no account at all of the 
quality of the milk. 

The following table from Minnesota Station Bulletin 130 
shows that as milk increases in fat percentage it also increases 
in protein and sugar. 

The comparative value or cost of milks of various fat per- 
centage is best shown by reducing all the nutrients to a single 
term called the Starch Equivalent. This is obtained by mul- 
tiplying the amount of fat by 2.25 and adding to the product the 
amount of Protein and Carbohydrates. 

The following table makes this matter clearer. A glance at 
the table convinces one that to feed amply and yet not waste, full 
account needs be taken of the quality as well as the quantity of 
the milk being produced by the cow being fed. 



Organic Composition of Milk " 




Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Starch Equivalent 


2.68 


4.60 


14.03 


2.8 1 


4.75 


15.44 


3.08 


4.85 


16.93 


3.27 


4.9/ 


18.37 


3.45 


4.98 


19.68 


3.82 


4.91 


22.23 


4.12 


4.90 


23.65 


4.22 


4.84 


24.81 



ADJUSTING THE RATION 231 



Fat 
3.0 
3.5 
4.0 
4.5 
5.0 
6.0 
6.5 
7.0 

This has now been carefully worked out and published in 
Minnesota Station Bulletin 130^ from which the following- 
tables are taken. 

A number of feeding standards have been suggested, but the 
one developed by Haecker, of the Minnesota Station, is the most 
workable. Haecker was the first investigator to consider the 
maintenance of the cow separate from the milk, to recognize the 
quality of the milk as well as the quantity, and to reduce the 
whole to a unity basis. 

Adjusting the Ration. — There is what may be called a 
triple balance in the matter of feeding dairy cows, (a) the 
balance of the amount of roughage to the size of the cow, ( 6 ) the 
balance of the amount of grain to be fed to the amount and 
quality of the milk the cow is giving, and (c) the balance of the 
chemical nutrients to the needs of the cow. 

On the average a cow will eat 2 pounds of hay or its equiva- 
lent per hundred pounds per day. A cow weighing 900 pounds 
will eat 18 pounds of hay very readily and one of 1400 pounds 
should consume 28 pounds of hay per day. Ordinarily, how- 
ever, the lighter weight cows, if they are of dairy type, will eat 
more for their weight than heavier ones. \\Tiere com silage is 
fed due allowance must be made for the high water content of it. 

Silage as now usually made from comparatively mature 
com contains about 26 per cent dry matter, thus 3 pounds will 
contain 0.78 pound dry matter, which is roughly the equivalent 
of 1 pound of hay (0.8Y pound of dry matter). 

nrinn. Bui. 130. 



232 



WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 



TABLE IL FEEDING STANDARD 

Giving Net Nutrients Required for the Production of Milk Containing a 

Given Per Cent of Butter-Fat 



Lbs. 
of 

Milk 



% FAT IN MILK 
3.0 



% FAT IN MILK 
3.1 



% FAT IN MILK 
3.2 



1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



Pro. 



.047 
.094 
.141 
.188 
.234 
.281 
.328 
.375 
.422 
.469 



c-n. 


.20 


.40 


.60 


.80 


.99 


1.19 


1.39 


1 59 


1.79 


1.99 



Fat 



Pro. 



.017 
.034 
.051 
.068 
.085 
.102 
.119 
.136 
.153 
.170 



.047 
.095 
.142 
.190 
.237 
.284 
.332 
.379 
.427 
.474 



C-H. 


.20 


.41 • 


.61 


.81 


1 OA 


1.22 


1.42 


1.62 


1.83 


2.03 



Fat 



.017 
035 
.052 
.070 
.087 
.104 
.122 
.139 
.157 
.174 



Pro. 



.048 
.096 
.143 
.191 
.239 
.287 
.335 
.382 
.430 
.478 



C-H. 



.21 

.41 

.62 

.83 

1.04 

1.24 

1.45 

1 66 

1.87 

2.07 



Fat 



.018 
.036 
.053 
.071 
.089 
.107 
.125 
.142 
.160 
.178 



3.3 



3.4 



3.5 



1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

10 



048 


.21 


097 


.42 


145 


. .64 


193 


.85 


241 


1.06 


290 


1.27 


338 


1.48 


386 


1.69 


435 


1 91 


483 


2.12 



.018 
.036 
.054 
.072 
.090 
.109 
.127 
.145 
.163 
.181 



.049 
.097 
.146 
.194 
.243 
.292 
.340 
.389 
.437 
.486 





.22 




.43 




.65 




.87 




08 




30 




51 




73 




95 


2 


16 



.018 
.037 
.055 
.074 
.092 
.111 
.129 
.148 
.166 
.185 



049 


.22 


098 


.44 


148 


.66 


197 


.88 


246 


1.10 


295 


1.32 


344 


1.55 


394 


1.77 


443 


1.99 


492 


2.21 



.019 
.038 
.057 
.076 
.094 
.113 
.132 
.151 
.170 
.189 



3.6 



3.7 



3.8 



1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



050 


.22 


100 


.45 


150 


.68 


200 


.90 


250 


1.13 


301 


1.35 


351 


1.58 


401 


1.80 


451 


2.03 


501 


2.25 



.019 
.039 
.058 
.077 
.096 
.116 
.135 
.154 
.174 
.193 



.051 
.102 
.153 
.204 
.255 
.307 
.358 
.409 
.460 
.511 





23 




46 




.69 




.92 


1 


15 


1 


.38 


1 


.60 


1 


83 


2 


06 


2 


29 



.020 
.039 
.059 
.078 
.098 
.118 
.137 
.157 
.176 
.196 



.052 
.104 
.156 
.208 
.260 
.312 
.364 
.416 
.468 
.520 



.23 

.47 

.70 

.93 

1.17 

1.40 

1.64 

1.87 

2.10 

2.34 



.020 
.040 
.060 
.080 
.100 
.120 
.140 
.160 
.180 
.200 



3.9 



4.0 



4.1 



1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



053 


.24 


106 


.48 


159 


.71 


212 


.95 


265 


119 


318 


1.43 


371 


1.67 


424 


1.90 


477 


2.14 


530 


2.38 



.021 
.041 
.061 
.082 
.102 
.122 
.143 
.163 
.184 
.204 



.054 
.108 
.162 
.216 
.269 
.323 
.377 
.431 
.485 
.539 



.24 

.48 

.73 

.97 

1.21 

1.45 

1.70 

1.94 

2.18 

2.42 



.021 
.042 
.062 
.083 
.104 
.125 
.146 
.166 
.187 
.208 



055 


.25 


109 


.49 


164 


.74 


218 


.99 


273 


1.23 


328 


1.48 


382 


1.73 


437 


1.97 


491 


2.22 


.546 


2.47 



.021 
.042 
.063 
.084 
.105 
.127 
.148 
.169 
.190 
.211 



ADJUSTING THE RATION 233 

TABLE II. FEEDING STANDARD— Continued 



% FAT IN MILK 



% FAT IN MILK 
4.3 



% FAT IN MILK 
4.4 



Pro. 



.055 
.111 
.166 
.221 
.276 
.332 
.387 
.442 
.497 
.553 



C-H. 




25 




50 




75 


1 


00 


1 


.25 


1 


50 


1 


.76 


2 


01 


2 


26 


2 


51 



Fat 



.021 
.043 
.064 
.086 
.107 
.129 
.150 
.172 
.193 
.215 



Pro. 


C-H. 


.056 


.25 


.112 


.51 


.167 


.76 


.223 


1.02 


.279 


1.27 


.335 


1.53 


.391 


1.78 


.446 


2.04 


.502 


2.29 


.558 


2.55 



Fat 



.022 
.044 
.065 
.087 
.109 
.131 
.153 
.174 
.196 
.218 



Pro. 


C-H. 


.056 


.26 


.113 


.52. 


.169 


.78 


.226 


1.04 


.282 


1.30 


.339 


1.56 


.395 


1.82 


.452 


2.08 


.508 


2.34 


.565 


2.60 



Fat 



.022 
.044 
.067 
.089 
.111 
.133 
.155 
.178 
.200 
.222 



4.5 



4.6 



4.7 



057 


.26 


114 


.53 


172 


.79 


229 


1.06 


286 


1.32 


343 


1.58 


400 


1.85 


458 


2.11 


515 


2.38 


572 


2.64 



.023 
.045 
.068 
.090 
.113 
.136 
.158 
.181 
.203 
.226 



.058 
.116 
.174 
.232 
.289 
.347 
.405 
.463 
.521 
.579 



.27 
.54 
.80 
1.07 
1.34 
1.61 
1.88 
2.14 
2.41 
2.68 



.023 
.046 
.069 
.092 
.115 
.138 
.161 
.184 
.207 
.230 



.058 
.117 
.175 
.234 
.292 
.350 
.409 
.467 
.526 
.584 



.27 
.54 
.81 
1.09 
1.36 
1.63 
1.90 
2.17 
2.45 
2.72 



.023 
.047 
.070 
.093 
.116 
.140 
.163 
.186 
.210 
.233 



4.8 



4.9 



5.0 



.059 
.118 
.177 
.236 
.295 
.355 
.414 
.473 
.532 
.591 



.28 
.55 
.83 
1.11 
1.38 
1.66 
1.93 
2.21 
2.49 
2.76 



.024 
.047 
.071 
.094 
.118 
.142 
.165 
.189 
.212 
.236 



.060 
.119 
.179 
.239 
.298 
.358 
.418 
.478 
.537 
.597 



.28 
.56 
.84 
1.12 
1.40 
1.68 
1.96 
2.24 
2.52 
2.80 



.024 
.048 
.072 
.096 
.120 
.144 
.168 
.192 
.216 
.240 



.060 
.121 
.181 
.242 
.302 
.362 
.423 
.483 
.544 
.604 





28 




57 




85 


1 


14 


1 


42 


1 


70 


1 


99 


2 


27 


2 


56 


2 


84 



.024 
.049 
.073 
.097 
.121 
.146 
.170 
.194 
.219 
.243 



5.1 



5.2 



5.3 



061 


.29 


122 


.57 


183 


.86 


244 


1.15 


305 


1.44 


367 


1.73 


428 


2.01 


489 


2.30 


550 


2.59 


611 


2.88 



.025 
.049 
.074 
.099 
.123 
.148 
.173 
.198 
.222 
.247 



062 


.29 


124 


.58 


185 


.87 


247 


1.17 


309 


1.46 


371 


1.75 


433 


2.04 


494 


2.33 


556 


2.62 


618 


2.91 



.025 
.050 
.075 
.100 
.125 
.150 
.175 
.200 
.225 
.250 



.062 
.125 
.187 
.250 
.312 
.375 
.437 
.500 
.562 
.625 



.29 
.59 
.88 
1.18 
1.47 
1.77 
2.06 
2.36 
2.65 
2.95 



.025 
.051 
.076 
.101 
.126 
.152 
.177 
.202 
.228 
.253 



234 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 

TABLE II. FEEDING STANDARD— Co^/mwerf 





% FAT IN MILK 


% FAT IN MILK 


% FAT IN MILK 


Lbs. 
of 




5.4 






5.5 






5.6 




MUk 






















Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


1 


.063 


.30 


. .026 


.064 


.30 


.026 


.064 


.31 


.026 


2 


.126 


.60 


.051 


.128 


.60 


.052 


.129 


.61 


.053 


3 


.190 


. .90 


.077 


.192 


.91 


.078 


.193 


.92 


.079 


4 


.253 


1.20 


,102 


.256 


1.21 


.104 


.258 


1.23 


.105 


5 


.316 


1.49 


.128 


.320 


1.51 


.129 


.322 


1.53 


.131 


6 


.379 


1.79 


.154 


.383 


1.81 


,155 


.386 


1.84 


.158 


7 


.442 


2.09 


.179 


.447 


2.12 


.181 


.451 


2.15 


.184 


8 


.506 


2.39 


.205 


.511 


2.42 


.207 


.515 


2'45 


.210 


9 


.569 


2.69 


.230 


.575 


2.72 


.233 


.580 


2.76 


.237 


10 


.632 


2.99 


.256 


.639 


3.02 


.259 


.644 


3.07 


.263 




■5.7 


5.8 


5.9 


1 


.065 


.31 


.027 


.066 


.31 


.027 


.066 


.32 


.027 


2 


.130 


.62 


.053 


.131 


.63 


.054 


.133 


.64 


.055 


3 


.195 


.93 


.080 


.197 


.94 


.081 


.199 


.95 


.082 


4 


.260 


1.24 


.106 


.262 


1.26 


.108 


.265 


1 27 


.109 


5 


.325 


1.55 


.133 


.328 


1.57 


.134 


.331 


1.59 


.136 


6 


.391 


1.86 


.160 


.394 


1.89 


.161 


.398 


1.91 


.164 


7 


.456 


2.17 


.186 


.459 


2 20 


.188 


.464 


2.23 


.191 


8 


.521 


2.48 


.213 


.525 


2.51 


215 


.530 


2.54 


.218 


9 


.586 


2.79 


.239 


.590 


2.83 


.242 


.597 


2.86 


.246 


10 


.651 


3.10 


.266 


.656 


3.14 


.269 


.663 


3.18 


.273 






6.0 




6.1 


6.2 


1 


.067 


.32 


,028 


.068 


.33 


.028 


.069 


.33 


.028 


2 


.134 


.64 


.055 


.136 


.65 


.056 


.138 


.66 


.057 


3 


.200 


.97 


.083 


.204 


.98 


.084 


.207 


.99 


.085 


4 


.267 


1.29 


.110 


.272 


1.30 


.112 


.276 


1.32 


".113 


5 


.334 


1.61 


.138 


.339 


1.63 


.139 


.344 


1.65 


.141 


6 


.401 


1.93 


.166 


.407 


1.96 


.167 


.413 


1.98 


.170 


7 


.468 


2.25 


.193 


.475 


2.28 


-.195 


.482 


2.31 


.198 


8 


.534 


2.58 


.221 


.543 


2.61 


.223 


.551 


2.64 


.226 


9 


.601 


2.90 


.248 


.611 


2.93 


.251 


.620 


2.97 


.255 


10 


.668 


3.22 


.276 


.679 


3.26 


.279 


.689 


3.30 


.283 




6.3 


6.4 


6.5 


1 


.070 


.33 


.029 


.071 


.34 


.029 


.072 


.34 


.029 


2 


.140 


.67 


.057 


.142 


.67 


.058 


.144 


.68 


.059 


3 


.210 


1.00 


..086 


.213 


1.01 


.087 


.216 


1.02 


.088 


4 


.280 


1.34 


.114 


.284 


1.35 


.116 


.288 


1.37 


.117 


5 


.350 


1.67 


.143 


.355 


1.69 


.144 


.360 


1.71 


.146 


6 


.420 


2.00 


.172 


.426 


2.03 


.173 


.433 


2.05 


.176 


7 


-.490 


2.34 


.200 


.497 


2.36 


.202 


.505 


2.39 


.205 


8 


.560 


2.67 


.229 


.568 


2.70 


.231 


.577 


2.73 


.234 


9 


.630 


3.00 


.257 


.639 


3.04 


.260 


.649 


3.07 


.264 


10 

• 


.700 


3.34 


.286 


.710 


3.38 


.289 


.721 


3.42 


.293 



ADJUSTING THE RATION 235 

If then a cow weighs 1200 pounds, she would not be given 
24 pounds of hay, but 12 pounds of hay and 36 pounds (3 X 12) 
of silage. When either silage or hay is abundant it may be fed in 
quantity proportionally greater and the other proportionally less 
than that mentioned. This is only a helpful i*ule, not a law. 

The amount of grain a cow should receive will depend 
largely on the amount and quality of the milk produced. Most 
commonly one pound grain for every three pounds of milk will 
suffice, but this must be increased to one to two and a half or even 
one to two where the cow is yielding either a large flow of 
ordinary milk or a moderate amount of very rich milk. While 
if a cow is yielding only thirty pounds of 3.6 per cent milk, 
a grain and milk ratio of one to three would be ample. As 
much as one to two and a quarter would be desirable if sixty 
pounds of 3.6 per cent milk or thirty pounds of 5.5 per cent 
milk were being produced. 

The digestible nutrients required in the production of milk 
and the maintenance of the cow's body are all found in the 
various feeding stuffs, but in no two of them are the propor- 
tions of these ingredients the same and in few, if in any, is the 
proportion the same as that needed by the cow for either main- 
tenance or for milk formation. To emphasize this point and 
to present the matter in the form most usable, Minnesota Bul- 
letin 130 is quoted as Appendix Table III. 

The adjustment of the amount of the three nutrients fed to 
the needs of the cow so that she shall be fully nourished and yet 
to prevent the waste of any appreciable amount of any one of 
the nutrients is called " balancing the ration." The truly 
balanced ration is the most economical ration so far as the 
amount of feed is concerned and usually also is the economical 
ration in respect to cost. 

Example: Let us suppose a cow weighs 115Q pounds, and is 
giving daily 26 pounds of milk testing 4.2 per cent fat, what is 
the amount of nutrients required ? 

By reference to Table III we see that a cow weighing 1150 
pounds requires 0.805 pound protein, 8.05 pounds carbohydrates 
and 0.11 pound fat daily for mere bodily upkeep. By turning 



236 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 

to Table II, under the section headed " Percentage of fat in 
milk 4.2," we may easily calculate the amount of each nutrient 
by taking the amount indicated for 2 pounds of milk and mul- 
tiplying by 10 and then adding in the amount needed for G 
pounds of milk. Thus we find that for the formation of 26 
pounds of 4.2 per cent milk there are required '1.44 pounds of 
digestible protein, 6.5 pounds digestible carbohydrates and 0.56 
pound digestible fat. Adding the two amounts we have: 

Protein Carbohydrates "Fat 

For maintenance 805 8.05 .11 

For 20 pounds 4.2 per cent milk. . 1.44 6.50 .56 



Total nutrients required 2.245 14.55 .67 

From the above we see that the cow assumed must be pro- 
vided with 21/4 pounds protein, 141/2 pounds carbohydrates and 
more than i/> pound fat per day or she will either decrease in 
milk flow or lose weight, or do both. 

To supply the nutriment required suppose we feed : 

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat 

Timothy liay l:i .230 5.21 .168 

Corn silage .36 .345 5.15 .252 

Corn 5 .395 3.33 .215 

Oats 4 .428 2.01 .152' 

Nutrients provided 1.404 15.70 .787 

Nutrients required 2.275 14.55 .67 

It will be noted from the above example that, ahhough the 
regulation amounts of hay, silage and grain have been fed, and 
that carbohydrates and fat amtnuits are well provided, pro- 
tein is 0.84 pound short. This ration is balanced in respect to 
roughage to cow and grain to milk, but far from it in the more 
vital part, digestible nutrients, especially i)rotein. Reference 
to table of analysis shows that cottonseed meal, linseed oil meal, 
gluten feed and bran are richer in protein than corn or oats. 
To correct tlie balance of nutrients and to keep the number of 
pounds the same, suppose we try the following: 



ADJUSTING THE RATION 237 

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrales Fat 

Timothy hay 12 .-iao 5.21 .168 

Corn silage M .345 5.15 .252 

Corn 4 .310 2.67 .172 

Oats 3 .321 1.51 .114 

Cottonseed meal 2 .752 .43 .192 

Nutrients provided 1.970 14.97 .898 

Nutrients required 2.245 14.55 .67 

In this the requirements are more nearly approached, but 
the shortage in protein is still too great. 

If we shift the grain slightly to contain 3 pounds corn, 3 
pounds oats and 3 pounds cottonseed meal we have : . 

Lbs. Pro'.ein Carbohydrates Fat 

Timothy liay 12 .236 5.21 .168 

Corn silage 3(i .345 5.15 .252 

Corn 3 .237 2.01 .129 

Oats 3 .321 1.51 .114 

Cottonseed meal 3 1.128 .64 .288 

Nutrients provided 2.267 14.52 .952 

Nutrients required 2.245 14.55 .67 

In this case all three of the balances have been met ver}^ 
satisfactorily. It will be noted that the balance of the nutrients 
is almost perfect. Xo more feed is consumed in this case, but 
more milk would be produced and a better physical condition 
of the cow maintained. 

A very material amount of the balancing may often be 
effected by means of the roughage, by the use of alfalfa or 
clover hay. Thus we may feed a ration as follows: 

Lbs. 

Red clover hay 12 

Corn silage 36 

Corn 5 

Oats 4 

Nutrients ])rovided 

Nutrients required 



Pro'.ein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


.853 


4.54 


.216 


.345 


.5.15 


.252 


.395 


3.33 


.215 


.428 


2.01 


.152 


2.020 


15.03 


.835 


2.245 


14.55 


.67 



238 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 

In this ration the addition of clover has nearly balanced it. 
It is, however, 1/4 pound short in protein, and ^ pound over 
in carbohydrates. 

In the past, wheat bran has been fed largely for milk pro- 
duction, but while a little is good for the stock more nutriment 
can usually be obtained for the money by purchasing, instead, 
some of the grains richer in protein and more digestible. Sup- 
pose we try: 

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat 

Clover hay 12' .852 4.54 .216 

Corn silage 36 ,345 5.15 .252 

Corn 4 .316 2.67 .172 

Oats 4 .428 2,01 .152 

Linseed oil meal 1 ,302 .32 .069 

Nutrients provided 2.243 14.69 .861 

Nutrients required 2.245 14.55 .67 

It will be noted that the simple replacement of 1 pound 
com with 1 of linseed meal brought the protein up in amount 
to the point of requirement and that no more total feed was 
given by the change. This last ration would be a very good one 
indeed for a 1150-pound cow yielding 2G pounds of milk testing 
4,2 per cent fat, daily, and has the advantage over the other 
balanced ration, both in physiological effect on the cow and of 
having been produced more largely on the farm, a less amount 
having been purchased. 

Combinations almost without number might be made, but 
the foregoing will sufficiently illustrate the necessity and the 
method of ration balancing. 

It is not necessary nor advisable that each grain be weighed 
out separately for each cow. Such would entail altogether too 
much work and too much disturbance of the cows as well. It is 
not even necessary to make up a separate mixture for each cow. 

A good mixture made of three or more grains may be made 
up to serve as a complement to the hay fed, and from this grain 
all the cows in any herd may be fed very accurately by increas- 
ing or decreasing the amount of grain and hay given. 



A GENERAL RULE 239 

A General Rule. — Except when a very large amount of 
milk or a very rich milk in quite liberal quantity is to be pro- 
vided for the following general rule will provide an approx- 
imately balanced ration. The rule is : " Feed 2 pounds of hay, 
or 1 pound of hay and 3 pounds of silage, or 1 pound of hay and 
li/o of fodder per hundredweight of cow. Then make up a mix- 
ture of three or more grains in such proportion as to contain 
about 16 per cent digestible protein if timothy or wild hay is to 
be fed, or about 13 per cent digestible protein if clover-timothy 
mixture hay is to be fed, or about 11 per cent digestible protein if 
clover hay is to be fed, or about 9 per cent of digestible protein if 
alfalfa hay is to be fed; and then feed of the grain mixture 1 
pound for every 21/2 to 3 pounds of milk, if Jersey or Guernsey 
cows, or 1 pound to 3 pounds of milk if Shorthorn gTade, or 
1 pound to 3 or 314 pounds if Holstein." 

As an example, suppose grade Shorthorns or Shorthom-Hol- 
stein cows are to be fed^and the hay at hand is a mixture of 
wild grasses and timothy. The hay and silage or hay and fodder 
would then be fed as already mentioned and would approx- 
imately sustain the animal so far as maintenance requirements 
are concerned. To provide such a herd with grain we may 
start with com, oats, or barley and one or two purchased high 
protein feeds — say bran and cottonseed meal. The mixture to 
contain between 15 and 16 per cent digestible protein would 
have to be made about as follows : 

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat 

Corn 4 .316 2.07 .162 

Oats 2 .214 1.01 .076 

Bran I1/2 .178 .63 ,037 

Cottonseed meal 214 .840 .54 .240 

10 1.548 4.85 .525 

Expressed in terms of per cent the composition of this 
mixture would be, protein 15.48 per cent, carbohydrates 48.5 
per cent and fat 5.25 per cent. 

In this the protein is quite up to the amount usually needed 



240 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 

to balance the nutrients in a cow's ration, wliicli has been 
based on non-proteinous roughage. 

In case red clover or alsike clover hay is available to feed 
Avitli the silage or com fodder, a less amoutit of protein will need 
be purchased because so largely furnished in the leguminous hay. 
A grain supplement for such would be made up as follows: 

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat 

Corn (J .474 4.00 .258 

Oats 2% .2(57 1.20 .094 

Linseed oil meal ly. .453 .48 .103 

10 1.194 5.74 .455 

In the above grain mixture it will be noted that only 15 per 
cent of the total amount of grain is purchased, all the rest i| 
home grown, and that the mixture has a percentage composition 
of protein 11.91, carbohydrates 57.4 and fat 4.55. This mix- 
ture will form a very good adjunct to the clover hay fed. There 
should be no hesitancy, however, in buying high protein grain 
feeds, since the purchase of such high protein feed may well be 
considered a double purchase, in that protein is first obtained 
for the cow's ration and that, following, the manure is made 
richer in nitrogen for the fertilization of the fields. 

A single caution in the use of corn meal is that it should not 
be fed to a milch cow in amounts greater than about one-half 
pound per himdredweight of cow per day. A 1200-pound cow 
may safely be allowed to consume 6 pounds of corn meal per 
day, an 800-pound cow 4 pounds. If used more freely there 
is danger of a fatty deposit in the os resulting in sterility. It 
is also inadvisable to feed cottonseed meal in quantities greater 
than 3 pounds a day to a cow as a steady ration. 

Feed During Heavy Yield. — In all the breeds having the 
most pronounced dairy type and temperament, there are cows 
which, when fresh, will yield considerably more milk than can 
be supported by the amount of feed that the cow can possibly 
digest and assimilate. All of the substances contained in that 
amount of milk given in excess of that supplied directly by the 
(daily ration, is obtained from the cow's own body, by a process 
of absorption. It is natural for cows to flesh up while carrying 



FEED DURING HEAVY YIELD 241 

the young, and to " milk down " after calving. This fact now 
is made use of in the making of large milk records. 

The question naturally arises, '' What should be the nature 
of the ration fed during this period of losing weight ? Should 
it be a baknced ration to the limit of the cow's ability to eat 
feed, and thereby force her to extract from her tissue a balanced 
ration for the remainder of the milk, or should the ration 
contain practically enough protein to sustain the full flow and 
thereby j)ermit the cow's vital tissue to remain unimpaired while 
forcing her to use up her body fat only to provide the 
deficiency ? " 

The question has never been closely studied experimentally, 
but the practice of the men who are now making the large 
records have very generally adopted the latter method. 

An abundance of protein in an easily digested and palatable 
form stimulates milk production and, what is probably of equal 
importance, leaves the vital organs and tissues of the cow in 
good repair after the yield has declined to a point where the cow 
can sustain the flow by daily consumption, of feed. 

An example to illustrate: Let us assume a 1-iOO-pound ITol- 
stein-Friesian cow in good condition. The matter may be illus- 
trated by figure 76. Let O indicate time of calving; the 
vertical line amount in pounds and the horizontal line time in 
weeks ; the solid curved line the milk amount and the dotted line 
the feed amount. 

A week or more before the cow is due to calve the heavy 
grain should be withheld from the cow, she being fed on suc- 
culent roughage such as silage and roots with a little hay and 
just prior to parturition all feed should be withheld, but water 
provided in abundance and often. 

After calving she should not be crowded with feed to force 
the milk, but rather the cow should be allowed to set the pace in 
flow while the feed is carefully raised in amount, follo^\dng, as 
it were, the lead of the milk. 

If in our example (Fig. 76) the cow at the end of three weeks 

reached a flow of 90 pounds of 4.0 per cent milk, A-C, and is 

able to consume feed for the support of only 65 pounds of milk, 

A-B, she will have to make up the deficiency, B-C, 25 pounds, 

16 



ir^- 


X 


-ii 


l' 
1 

J 




-A 


1 
1 




-4- 


i 








y 


.-S 




FEED DURING HEAVY YIELD 243 

from lier own bod}'. Up to this point and continuing, the feed 
supplied should contain liberal quantities of protein, enough 
to meet the protein requirement, if possible. The nutritive 
ratio of the total ration at A B C would be about 1 : 5.0, at 
D E F, 1 : 5.5 and at G 11 I, 1 : 6.0. 

As the milk flow naturally declines the proportion of protein 
to carbohydrates should widen to reach a balanced form at as 
earh^ a period as possible. Care should be taken not to over- 
feed in protein, as it is liable to bring on a rheumatic condition, 
but so long as all the protein feed is needed and the whole ration 
kept as cooling in nature as possible there is little or no danger 
of " burning out." 

Later in the lactation period when the milk-line falls, the 
value of about one pound of grain below the feed-line, the grain 
should be cut down to agree, yet to remain a little above, to sup- 
port the flow instead of dragging it downwards, as would be the 
case if the feed-line fell below the milk-line. 

The competent herdsman will study carefully each cow that 
he may provide her not simply with feed nutrients, but also in 
the form most pleasing to the particular cow. Some cows dis- 
like cottonseed meal, but will take linseed oil meal with zest; 
some prefer les.s silage and more hay ; some crave wheat bran, or 
some form of sugar feed or roots. Each cow has a favorite 
without which she will not take the maximum of feed. They 
should be studied separately and humored. 

Roots such as mangles and nitabagas have been fed for 
many j^ears in various parts of the Avorld, but are only recently 
coming to form a part of the cow's ration systematically, and 
in the place of some grain rather than as a competitor of com 
silage. A field, planted to corn where corn grows even reason- 
ably well, will produce more feed per acre, and per dollar cost 
of gro\\dng, than if planted to roots, but either mangles or ruta- 
bagas compete successfully with either oats or barley as milk 
producers. Moreover, the tender succulent condition of the 
feed in roots renders them more easily masticated and digested 
than hay, in fact equal to good grain. Roots and potatoes may 
then be systematically substituted for a part of the grain ration 
called for by any cow giving milk. In practice one-half the 



244 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS 

grain may be withheld and roots snbstitnted at the rate of 11 
j)Ounds of mangles, 9 poimds of rutabagas or 5 pounds of pota- 
toes to replace 1 pound of grain. 

If a cow is yielding 40 pounds of 3.8 per cent milk she may 
be fed hay and silage according to her weight. Then instead 
of feeding (40-^3 = 13) 13 pounds of grain, 6I/2 pounds of 
grain may be fed and 70 pounds of mangles or 60 pounds of ruta- 
bagas, or 33 pounds of potatoes, substituted in place of the 
remaining grain. 

Order of Feeding.^ — It is natural for all animals to be more 
or less nervous or even irritable when hungry. It is at such 
timea that the milkers are most likely to get into trouble with 
the cows. It is desirable, therefore, to feed the cow her grain 
first and to milk while she is eating. Hay should be fed after 
milking because so often dusty, and silage and roots after milking 
because of their odor. 

Cows need be fed but twice a day, the total amount of hay, 
silage and grain being divided equally between the moniing and 
evening meals. 

The balancing of the nutrients of a cow's ration is not now a 
difficult task and it is no longer a question that cows consistently 
fed approximately balanced rations will remain in better phys- 
ical condition, drop stronger calves and yield more mi.k at less 
cost than cows not so fed. 

The kindly and regular care and comfort given the cows has 
nearly, if not quite, as much to do with profitable returns as has 
the balancing of the ration. The cow has been said to be " a 
profitable recipient of afi'ection." 

A silo is an immense barrel into wliich green feed, like corn, 
is cut to be used as feed for livestock. 

The advantage of the silo in American agriculture may be 
briefly summarized as follows : 

1. Silage keeps young stock thrifty and growing better than 
dry fodder. 

2. It produces beef more cheaply than dry hay. 

3. It enables cows to produce milk and butter more econom- 
ically. 



EFFECT OF SILAGE ON MILK 245 

4. It brings them out in the spring in such condition that 
they shed their winter coats and commence gaining at once. 

5. The silo prevents the waste of the com stalks which con- 
tain from 40 to (30 per cent of the total feed value of the field 
of corn. 

6. And, therefore, a larger number of animals may be kept 
on a given amount of land. 

7. The silo furnishes the most economical method of preserv- 
ing feed for the hot, dry period in summer when pasture is short. 

8. It is usually preferable to a full soiling system for summer 
feeding. 

ISTo dairy or general livestock farm is properly equipped for 
economical production until a silo of some sort is provided 
(Figs. 77, 78 and 79). 

The kind of a silo is not essential, but rather the three 
points, namely: 

First, its height should be about twice as great as its diameter 
to insure sufficient pressure to expel the air from the cut corn 
and thus reduce the spoiling. 

Second, it must be practically air-tight about the sides and 
bottom to prevent admission o-f air which will cause or bring 
about rotting of the silage. 

Third, it must be made strong enough to withstand a heavy 
outward pressure. 

The wooden stave silo has the advantage of producing a 
very sweet silage if the corn is at all right, but has also the dis- 
advantage of drying out quickly when empty, with liability of 
collapsing. 

The cement block or monolith silo probably does not pro- 
duce quite so sweet a flavored silage as a wooden silo, but it is 
more permanent if well reinforced. And, so long as the cows do 
not object to the slightly modified flavor, why should man ? 

The acid from com put up too green has a perceptible effect 
on cement walls and foundations, but the amount generated in 
silage from mature com is negligible in effect. 

Effect of Silage on Milk. — ^lilk produced by cows fed even 
heavily and continuously on mature com silage will not be less 
tasty or valuable than anv other and Avill be better for children 



Fig. 77. 



Fig. 78. 




Fig. 79. 

Fig. 77. — Silo, clay block, hollow wall, erected at the Agricultural School Farm, 

Crookston, Minii. 

Fig. 78. — This home-made, pla.ster-lined silo cost little and gave perfect satisfaction. 

(Woodland Dairy Farm.) 

Fig. 79. — Octagonal barn being built around a silo made by nailing 2 x 4's solidly 

together flatwise in an eight-sided form. (Owned by J. H. Nixon, Nevis, Minn.) 



QUESTIONS 247 

and infants for the reason that the cows are in better physical 
condition. If, however, the feed is excessively sour from being 
put into the silo too green, the milk will not have the rich, full 
aroma that it ordinarily possesses. Such silage shovild be fed 
in lessened amounts with more hay. 

Cows' teeth will not be affected by silage if it has been made 
from even reasonably mature corn and fed in conjunction with 
dry hay or corn fodder. 

Weed seeds present in hay or grain fed to cows are passed 
unchanged, unless it be that they grow a little better after the 
treatment,'^ but seeds of all kinds except mature clover and 
alfalfa are practically all destroyed by being put into a silo.^ 

QUESTIONS 

1. At what season do cows naturally yield most milk? 

2. At that season what are the conditions as to (a) feed supply, (b) 

succulence of feed, (c) temperature, (d) proportion nutrients in the 
feed ? 

3. Why should cows be made to freshen in the fall, as a general rule? 

4. Illustrate on the board how one cow may by consuming 2.5 per cent 

more feed have 100 per cent more for milk formation. 

5. How. may common hay be made more palatable? 
(). What is meant by succulence? 

7. What is a feed nutrient? 

8. What is a ration? 

9. What is a balanced ration? 

10. Wliat is meant by a maintenance ration? 

11. As the fat per cent increases in milk how do the protein and carbohy- 

drates vary? 

12. What is the particular value or use of protein in feed? Of carbohy- 

drates? Of fat? 

13. Is it necessary to feed each cow a separate grain mixture? 

14. How may every cow be fed what she needs from one grain mixture? 

15. Give the general rule in feeding. 

16. Discuss the use of roots in the place of grain. 

17. What is the preferable order of feeding? 

18. What are the three essentials of a good silo? 

19. What are the advantages of a silo? 

20. Under what conditions may silage affect the milk yielded by the cows? 

^ Beach, C. L. Vermont Bui. Xo. 138; Oswald, W. L. Minn, work in 
progress. 

^Washburn, R. M. Vermont Bui. No. 170. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

CALF RAISING 

Nature's system in the matter of calf raising is apparently 
that the calf should be bom in the spring time; should suckle 
its dam until six or eight months old; and during this time 
gradually work on to grass and dry feed. This, however, is 
entirely too extravagant for the present conditions of life in 
the dairy sections of the country. By this system the owner of 
the cow realizes an income on his investment equal only to the 
value of the calf at the end of the year. 

Furthermore, cows as now developed for dairying will pro- 
duce from two to ten times as much milk as needed by the calf 
and the value of butter fat on the market is too high to warrant 
its being fed for any consideral)le length of time to calves. 

Under the cheap land and scarce labor conditions, where 
beef husbandry is preeminently the form of livestock found most 
profitable, the system of raising the calves upon their dams is 
unquestionably correct. Under opposite conditions, namely, 
high-priced land and more abundant labor, it is unprofitable 
indeed to permit the calf to consume whole milk for a period 
longer than is really necessary to get it well started. The general 
livestock and gTain farms of the country will therefore present 
problems var\'ing all the Avay from one extreme to the other. 

Veal calves are often produced in order to obviate the neces- 
sity of milking for a period of six to eight weeks during the 
e-rowth of the calf. While this svstem has the advantasjes of 
slightly lessening the labor on the farm, the disadvantages are 
apparent when the calf is removed. ISTot alone has the calf been 
consuming 30-cent butter fat and converting it into 10-cent veal, 
but there is in nearly all cases a decided falling off in the amount 
of milk which the mother will give after the removal of the calf. 

Cows care very little indeed for their calves at the time of 
birth, but their affection increases rapidly as they are pennitted 
to clean them off and especially when the little things suckle a few 
248 



IMPORTANCE OF RAISING CALVES 249 

times. So intense does the mother love become during the 
period of veal making, that at the end of six or eight weeks, when 
the calf is finally removed, the mother not infrequently Vv^ill 
kunt for her calf, bawl about and hold up her milk until going 
nearly or quite dry. If the cow is later to be milked it will be 
found a decided detriment to allow the calf so long a period 
with its mother. 

Occasionally a cow that is hard ^to milk or otherwise dis- 
agTeeable, may be turned over to calves and suckled by them, 
one after another, and thus be made to return good value during 
a period of stress. 

The Importance of Raising Calves. — j\Iany times the ques- 
tion has been raised whether it were preferable for individual 
dairy farmers to raise their own calves or to buy " springers " 
when fresh cows are needed. Obviously someone must raise 
calves if the number of cows is to be maintained. The economy 
of the practice of dairymen living near cities, producing milk 
for market use, in purchasing cows as needed and making no 
attempts at raising young stock will not be questioned. Farmers, 
on the other hand, who keep a limited number of cows and who 
have large quantities of hay and com fodder for consumption 
should by all means raise their own young stock rather than to 
tiaist to the market. It is common observation, too, that the 
specialized dairymen near the cities are better judges of cows 
than are lyost farmers, and that where possible it is desirable that 
tlie best of the city dairy cows be bred and that the young stock be 
raised on the farm farther back from the cities. Certain it is that 
if improvement is to be made in the class of cows kept, calves 
must be reared from the best individual cows. 

Fall calves have the advantage over those born in the spring. 
During the first few weeks of the calf's life he lives almost 
wholly upon milk, whether there be blue grass or snowdrifts 
just outside the bar.n. As he matures, more feed, especially 
grain, is consumed. All this can take place in the winter as 
well as in the summer. The October or IsTovember calf will , by 
May, be old enough to make use of pasture and should be given 
a moderate amount of it. The autumn calf then reaches its 



250 CALF RAISING 

first period of dry feed without milk when nearly or quite a 
year old. The spring-dropped calf, on the other hand, con- 
sumes its milk during the period of good pasture and at six or 
eight months of age, ^vhen it would normally be weaned from 
milk, finds itself confronted with winter conditions while still 
too voung to withstand them well. The calf dropped in the 
fall is usually as large and as valuable at a year old as the spring 
calf at a year and a half. The farmer finds more time to care for 
the calf in winter than in summer. From the standpoint of the 
calf as well as that of the profitableness of the cow, dairy calves 
should bo dropped during the last three months of the year. 

Removing the Calf from the Mother. — One mistake often 
made is in allowing the calf to remain too long with the mother. 
She becomes attached to it and it becomes accustomed to her, 
and objects to learning to drink from a pail. Experience 
teaches that it is best to remove the calf as soon as it has been 
cleaned off, at any rate not allowing it to suckle more than once. 
AMien the cow is out of the box stall for water the calf should be 
removed without attracting her attention, and placed in dry com- 
fortable quarters, out of hearing of its mother, if possible. When 
the cow returns to the stall and notices the absence of her baby 
the wise dairyman will be on hand with a palatable mass of bran 
mash or steamed oats, and ready to be substituted in the affections 
of the cow for the little one that has been lost. This transfer of 
affection is easily accomplished at that time. 

Allow the Calf to Become Hungry. — If the calf has been 
permitted to suckle once it will not usually be sufiiciently 
hungry at the end of twelve hours to learn easily how to drink. 
No harm whatever will come to it if twenty-four hours elapse 
before its first meal after removal from the mother. When 
keenly hungry it will learn very readily. From one to three 
lessons only are then needed to teach the average calf the art 
of drinking from the pail. 

First Feeding. — The first milk drunk by the calf from the 
pail should be a portion of its own mother's milk, sweet, warm, 
and clean, and not more than a quart in quantity. In teaching 
the calf to drink the feeder should remember that the calf is a 



FIRST FEEDING 



251 



baby aud cannot be anything else until given time to grow. The 
ridiculous struggles occasionally pictured in teaching the calf to 
drink exhibit only ignorance on the part of the man. By first 
backing the little fellow into a corner and then locking his neck 
between the legs of the feeder, as in a stanchion (Fig. 80), the 
pail may be held in the left hand; the tips of the fingers on 
the right hand moistened with milk and inserted into the calf's 
mouth. At the taste of the milk the calf will commence to 
suck. Then slowly the head may be drawn downward until the 




Fig. so. — Inexpensive calf stanchion. (Courtesy Wisconsin Sta'aon.) 

milk is reached. The calf then sucks the fingers, drawing the 
milk between them. When well started the fingers should bo 
slowly withdrawn while the right thumb is held merely on the 
top of the nose. To be sure, the calf's head may fly up at any 
instant when the process will need to be repeated. An intelli- 
gent calf, keenly hungry, will occasionally learn to drink with 
the first lesson and usually with the second. Almost never will 
the calf have to be shown more than three times before it will 
proceed to drink from the pail unaided. 



252 



CALF RAISING 



Later Feeding. — During the period of about three days, 
when the cow is yielding colostrum milk, portions of such should 
be fed to the calf, the quantity naturally varying with the size 
and strength of the calf. Xo hard and fast rule can be laid 
down in this any more than in any other phase of dealing with 
live animals. It is a good rule tO' start out giving about one quart 
of milk at a. feeding. During the first week it is often wise to 
feed the calf three times a day, especially if it is weakly and un- 




FiG. 81. — Tender but healthy. Needs only good care and feed. 

able to consume a large quantity. After a week or ten days two 
feeds a day will be found (juite as satisfactory as three. 

The milk fed must be sweet, warm and from a clean pail, 
and not too great in quantity, otherwise digestive disturbances 
are liable to occur, resultiuii- in diarrhea, loss of streneih and 
if not checked soon, the calf may either die outright, or be 
stunted so that many months will be required for his recovery. 

The quantity of milk which should be given the calf will 
after three or four days be not far from one pound per day for 



THE GRAIN FED 253 

every eight or ten pounds that the calf weighs. A calf weigh- 
ing sixty pounds then would receive six to eight pounds o± milk 
per twenty-four hours, divided into two or three feedings. For 
this purpose measuring is sufficiently accurate, considering a 
quart to weigh two pounds. The first milk given should be 
whole milk, first from its own mother and later from the herd, 
provided, however, such milk does not carry more than 31/2 to 
4 per cent fat. Kich milk is not good for calves. It is liable 
to bring on diarrhea. This is particularly tnie of the thin, 
tender little calves often born in Jersey and Guernsey herds. 
Where the herd milk is of Jersey or Guernsey cows it is prefer- 
able that a little sweet skim milk should be added to the whole 
milk, even from the start, sufficient to bring the fat content 
down to at least -i per cent, and preferably down to 3 per cent. 
On such milk the calf then may be fed, in quantity according 
to its weight, for one to three weeks, depending upon its strength. 
At the end of this period it is usually found possible to lessen 
the amount of whole milk used, and to increase the amount of 
skim milk used, keeping the total of the two the same, however, 
and thus withdrawing the whole milk entirely from the ration. 
A period of at least a week -should be used in making the 
transition. A common error at this point is to feel that since 
skim milk is not as rich as whole milk a larger quantity should 
therefore be given. This is emphatically not true. The sub- 
stance withheld in skim milk feeding is fat and this cannot be 
replaced by feeding more of the skim milk which does not 
contain fat. The quantity of skim milk fed per day should not 
be greater than would readily be consumed if the fat had been 
left in it, but the deficiency should be made up by substituting 
grain. Thus it is possible to make ground corn, and later shelled 
corn, worth 1 1/4 cents a pound, practically take the place of butter 
worth 30 to 40 cents a pound. The average calf should gain from 
one to one and one-half pounds per day (Figs. 82 and 83). 

The grain fed to a young calf should consist of a fine soft 
meal, such as shorts, but when four weeks old the grain should 
have the same ingredients which would ordinarily be fed to 
dairy cows. A portion of the cow's grain mixture, if rightly 



254 



CALF RAISING 



made, will suffice for the calves. It should consist of corn, 
oats or barley, middlings or fine bran, and oil meal. Calves 
will learn, even at two weeks of age, to nibble of the mixture, 
and at three weeks will regularly consume considerable quan- 
tities. Grain should thereafter be fed in quantities sufficient 
to kee}) tlio young animals growing thriftily. At no other 




Fig. 82. — Stancliious tor calves to prevent the strong from stealing the lood of the weaker 
and to prevent all from sucking one another. 











Fig. 83. — K group of skim-milk calves. Note thrifty condition. 
G. W. Gehrand.) 



(Courtesy of 



time in the animal's life will so small a quantity of grain be of 
such great benefit. 

Hay for Calves. — It is surprising to note how young calves 
will begin regularly to eat quantities of hay, provided it is 
tender and otherwise palatable. At three weeks of age they 
begin to eat a few straws at a time and increase until liberal 
quantities are regularly consumed. It is highly to be recom- 
mended also that calves intended for dairy purpose be encour- 



RAISING CALVES WITHOUT MILK 255 

aged to eat haj as young and as freely as possible. By consum- 
ing hay thus freely less grain is necessary for their raising, and 
they are likewise to a considerable extent developed while young 
in their capacity to handle roughage. The hay best adapted 
to the use of young calves is second cut clover, or, if this is not 
obtainable, then something approaching that as nearly as pos- 
sible in character. Second cut meadow hay (rowen) is very goo<l 
indeed, because so tender and easily masticated. 

By rationally combining skim milk, ordinary grains and 
tender hay, calves are regularly raised on the best dairy farms 
at little expense and made to be perfect beauties while young 
and valuable when older. 

Order of Feeding. — Warm skim milk, free from excessive 
foam, is a highly nutritious feed for young animals of all kinds, 
but it is delicate and easily made imfit if fed in a dirty germ- 
laden pail, or if fed just after or immediately before the calf 
has eaten silage. The acidity of the silage seems to sour the 
milk before it can have time to digest. Calves so fed often 
stand for some time belching gas and showing signs of distress. 
A change in the order of feeding to grain, milk, hay and then 
silage has brought relief and decidedly improved the condition 
of the calves which had been so fed. 

Pasture for calves is of doubtful value. While small 
amounts of grass will bo consumed by the calf bom in autumn 
or winter it should not be required to consume large quantities 
or to depend very largely upon grass for its sustenance. The 
heat of an unshaded yard may easily undo the beneficial effects 
to be secured from the outside run and if the calves are forced 
to live out of doors during the latter portion of the smnmer, 
when the grass is more or less tough and dry, and flies numer- 
ous, there will usually be a period of stagnation in gTowth when 
no advancement is made. Under such circumstances the calves 
would be much better off eating their few pounds of hay, a little 
grain, water, and skim milk if available, in the bam. Calves 
should gain three-fourths to one and one-half pounds per day 
when three to eight months old. 

Raising Calves Without Milk. — In regions which regu- 
larly ship whole milk to cities the question of how to raise the 



256 CALF RAISING 

calves without holding back so large a quantity of milk is a 
vital one. To raise calves on milk worth $1.75 a hundred 
pounds makes him a rather expensive animal, while to raise no 
calves and to trust to the open market to replace the dairy is un- 
satisfactory from the standpoint of character or efficiency of the 
animal to be secured and the likelihood of introducing disease. 

For many years various concoctions have been tried and a 
few recommended as substitutes for milk in calf feeding. To 
make a long story short, the result of the many trials is that 
calves can be successfully reared upon a very small quantity of 
milk used in conjunction with an adequate amount of mixed 
grains, but that milk in some amount is practically essential. 
It is a settled practice in the milk-selling regions to withhold 
a small amount of milk for the purpose of supplying cream for 
the table and skim milk for the calves. A quart of skim milk 
is then diluted with water and fed, care being taken that the 
grain supply is ample and adapted to the calf's age. 

Calf Meals — Various compounds of cereals under a variety 
of names have for many years been advertised, a few for a 
century or more. Careful trials of the matter have proved that 
good calves may be raised on a very small amount of whole 
milk (60 to 90 pounds) and a moderate amount of skim milk 
(350 to 400 pounds) by the use of a calf meal. A ver)^ satis- 
factory calf meal may be made, according to Lindsey, as follows : 

Ingredients of Calf Meal 
22 pounds ground oat flakes 

10 pounds ground flaxseed meal 
5 pounds ground flour middlings 

11 pounds finely ground corn meal 
11/2 pounds prepared blood flour 

1/2 pound salt 
Cost, about 3 cents per pound. 

To use this meal with success essentially the following 
method should be followed : The calf should be removed from 
its mother and taught to drink in the manner alread}^ described. 
At eight to twelve days of age sweet warm skim milk should be 
added to the calf's mess, a little at a time and taking the place 
of the same quantity of whole milk. The second day of change 
a little more skim and a little less whole milk is fed ; thus the 



CALF SCOURS 257 

change is made to cover a week or ten days. By the time the 
milk fed is about half and half, skim and whole milk, a few 
ounces of the calf meal mixture should be stirred into the milk. 
This can best be done by making up the meal into a paste in cold 
water and then adding to the milk. The meal is gradually in- 
creased as the whole milk is decreased until when the calf is about 
three weeks old it is living on skim milk and calf meal. This diet 
of skim milk and meal gruel should continue until the calf is 
about three months old, when milk may be entirely withheld. 

The calf will already have learned to eat tender hay and 
small amounts of ordinary grain so that by the time the calf is 
six months old the feeding of the calf meal may be stopped. 
From this time forward any thrifty calf will do well on tender 
hay, common grain mixtures and water. 

Whey for Calves. — In regions where cheese is largely made 
the problem of raising calves is one of successfully combining 
whey with grain in such fashion as to produce thrifty stock. In 
the process of cheese making practically all of the fat and casein 
is removed from the milk. The substances remaining are 
sugar, albumen, a very little casein and a little fat and ash. The 
total solid content of whey is nearly one-half that of whole milk 
and about two-thirds that of skim milk. One hundred pounds 
of whey ordinarily carries from 5l^ to 6 pounds of solid feed, 
while skim milk has only about 9 pounds. The problem of 
raising calves in cheese districts has been solved in very much 
the same way as in whole milk shipping regions, namely, the 
combination of a small amount of milk with a generous amount 
of calf meals and common grains. 

Whey fed clean and sweet is better than water, but if allowed 
to become contaminated in a dirty whey tank or barrel it may 
cause scours and be worse than no whey. Whey is worth most 
when mixed with grains and fed to swine. 

Sweet whey combined with a calf meal will sustain a calf 
at an early age, two to three months, and may be continued until 
the calf is six or nine months old with profit. 

Calf Scours. — The most common form of calf scours is 
caused by any sort of interference with the process of digestion. 
In many places the most frequent cause is over-feeding on milk 
17 



258 CALF RAISING \ 

which is neither sweet nor sour, but in that dangerous half- 
changed condition. In addition to this many farmers have 
been guilty of feeding tender young calves out of pails so dirty 
as to be absolutely unlit to bear feed to any animal. The germs 
of decomposition growing continually in the crevices, and on 
the side, are distributed through the fresh milk supply and in- 
troduced into the calf, where they continue to grow and cause 
various sorts of evil conditions. Worse even than this is the 
practice of pouring the milk into a tub or half barrel in the 
yard, permitting the calves in the yard to jam their way in and 
drink at will. The strongest secure too much and the weakest 
not enough, and all get dirty stuff and suffer. 

For many years farmers have had difficulty in raising calves 
on skim milk as it has been returned from the creamery. This 
fact has been one of the reasons why the introducing of hand 
separators has been so rapid and thorough within the past ten 
years. With the strict enforcement of the law requiring the 
pasteurization of skim milk to prevent the spreading of tuber- 
culosis it was found that very good calves indeed could be raised 
on the milk returned from the creamery. A few who have had 
trying experiences with skim milk from the creamery have 
settled upon the practice of permitting the milk to become thor- 
oughly sour before feeding it to the calves. Thus, " clab- 
berred " sour milk has been successfully fed to even young 
calves and to the certain knowledge of the writer produce fine, 
thrifty stock. This should not be surprising, however, when 
w^e remember how many thousand human infants are now being 
reared upon buttermilk, beginning even at the age of two weeks 
or less and continuing until six to eight months of age. Cer- 
tain it is that milk fed to a calf should be either thoroughly 
sweet or thoroughly sour and in the same condition every time. 
See Chapter XXII for discussion of treatment of scours. 

Blood meal has bee-n found highly beneficial in correcting 
digestive disturbance in calves. A tablespoonful of blood flour, 
mixed with a small quantity of milk, fed to a calf with diarrhea 
acts as a corrective in such disturbances and is a highly nutri- 
tious feed as well. 

Raw eggs are excellent feed for a young calf which has 



YOUNG CALVES NEED REST 259 

started to scour from some fennentation of the milk it has 
drunk. Eggs do not ferment as does milk because they contain 
no sugar. While eggs spoil readily enough, the germ of egg 
decomposition is not the same as those germs that infest the in- 
testines of calves ; thus eggs are often a safe substitute for part or 
all of the milk for a few meals for calves suffering from scours. 

Bone meal is found to be a good substance to mix with salt for 
young cattle. Some feeds are deficient in the bone^forming ele- 
ments. This possible deficiency can be insured against by the 
feeding of a very moderate amount of bone meal. 

It has been shoA\Ti experimentally that an addition of ash 
to the ration of growing animals increases the size and the 
strength of the bone. An excess over absolute needs does no 
harm even if continued through the whole growing period. 

Water should be available to growing stock at all times 
or at least be made available at least three times a day. 

Young Calves Need Rest — The size of calf pens need 
not be greater than 0X8 feet in which not to exceed three calves 
should be kept. Individual pens only about 4X4: feet in size 
are preferable for very young calves, especially those of tlie Jersey 
and Guernsey breeds. A 3'oung calf is an infant and ;requires 
much rest. If placed in a pen where there are several older 
calves he is jostled about until thoroughly fatigued. Young 
calves doing very poorly under such conditions often pick up 
rapidly when placed in small individual pens. 

The floor of calf pens should be of some water-tight mate- 
rial which will not conduct heat readily. A cement floor is 
most easily cleaned, yet it is exceedingly hard on the young 
calf, as it becomes wet so quickly. It may be cold unless very 
heavily bedded or insulated as described in Chapter XXI. 
Tender cow-babies should not be compelled to lie where their 
soft warm stomachs may be chilled. This often causes diar- 
rhea which results in increased cost in raising the calf and 
produces an animal of less value. If a cement floor is used 
it should be overlaid with plank, cork-brick or creosoted blocks, 
or should be insulated the same as that part of tlie general 
stable floor upon which the cows must stand and lie. 

Good light, and free circulation of air are so desirable in 



260 CALF RAISING 

the calf pen that bams being constructed should take this class 
of needs well into account and locate the " children's '' room on 
the southeast or southwest corner of the barn. 

Sucking. — Practically all calves, if permitted, will, when 
through drinking their milk, turn and suckle the other calves 
present. The practice should not be permitted for the good 
of either calf. Heifer calves thus suckled will in a few months 
develop the udder abnormally on the side usually massaged 
by the process. Poorly formed udders in mature cows are 
occasionally traceable to carelessness in this regard on the part 
of the manager. Calves frequently, too, form the habit of 
consuming the urine from a neighbor calf, which practice is very 
detrimental to both. This is one reason v/hy it is so highly 
advisable to lock the calves in a stanchion before feeding and 
compel them to remain there until the impulse to nurse has 
left them ( Fig. 82). Kub bran on the nose after drinking. 

Open vs. Sucking Pails for Calves. — The theory is often 
expounded that calves will do much better if compelled to take 
more time in the drinking of their milk. To this end various 
devices resembling cows' udders with a single teat below have 
been put upon the market. A test of tlie value of slow versus 
fast drinking has recently been made with the evidence favor- 
ing the slow consumption of the milk. Earlier tests and prac- 
tice in general do not show sufficient difference in the two 
methods to warrant the extra cost of the instrument used and 
the extra labor in keeping it clean. Briefly, then, if the milk 
is in good condition and fed in proper amounts and in the 
right order, the rate of consumption of the milk will be found 
a very minor matter. 

Dehorning with Caustic. — Calves at birth have no bonis. 
The organ develops first on the skin as a button, loose from the 
skull, later attaches to the skull proper. A horn may be killed 
w^hile still a mere lump in the skin with caustic potash. The 
hair should be clipped away carefully around the spot to be 
treated ; the skin thoroughly moistened and rubbed soft. A 
stick of caustic potash may then be touched carefully to water 
and rubbed into the skin over the embryo horn. Care should 
be taken that there is not so much water present as to run 



THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY FEEDING 261 

down the side of the face. This will burn oif the hair and 
cause sores. When the scab over the horn falls off a second 
application will usually be found sufficient to entirely prevent 
the growth of the horn. Dehorning with caustic should be done 
when the calf is but two to three days old. , 

Age to Separate Calves. — .Well fed Jersey and Guernsey 
calves have been known to breed at 90 to 100 days of age. Hol- 
steins and Ayrshires reach this stage of development at from 
100 to 120 days. Bull calves reach a similar stage of develop- 
ment at four to five months of age. The dairyman of foresight 
then will separate the sexes before harm occurs. 

Condition of Dairy Calves. — While the consumption of 
milk containing a liberal quantity of fat will cause the calves 
to become fat enough for good veal at six to eight weeks of age, 
it is difficult indeed to fatten calves on skim milk and grain. 
More liberal feeding up to the limit of tlieir ability to consume, 
results more in a rapid growth than in fattening. Further- 
more, for dairy purposes there is no need that the calves be 
fattened, and there is danger asso'ciated with the condition. 
Calves fed too much grain, especially com, are in danger of fonu- 
ing the fattening habit, which" may detract from their value as 
dairy cows later, and if continued until the breeding age, the fat 
condition is very liable indeed to cause sterility, or inability to 
breed. The consumption of more hay and less grain in the 
growing heifer tends to produce an efficient dairy worker in 
after-life, as well as working towards economy in the raising of 
the animal. Grain should be fed in amount sufficient only to 
keep the animal in fair flesh and growing continually. 

The influence of early feeding on the size of the mature cow 
has long been suspected. Best experimental evidence has been 
furnished by the University of Missouri in which it is clearly 
shown that if a cow is to attain her gi-eatest stature she should 
be liberally fed while young (Fig. 84). In fact those cows 
that receive very liberal rations during their early growing- 
period not only reach tlieir growth at an earlier age but attain 
to a greater size than those which have been more scantily fed 
during the first two and a half years of their lives. Whether 



262 



CALF RAISING 



heavier cows are desirable is another question. The practice 
of our best breeders now is to crowd the young stock with an 
abundance of succulent roughage, adding only as much grain 
as is necessary to keep tliem in good condition. It is also shown 
that with strong dairy cows fat laid on in the early months 
rapidly disappears upon commencement of lactation. 




•lopr.l l,y 111: 



(ling. 



This must not be construed as advocating over-fatness in 
young stock, for such would likely impair their breeding quali- 
ties. Dairy young stock does not, however, require being kept 
so thin in flesh as has been recommended and practiced by many. 

The age to breed the dairy heifer will depend somewhat 
upon the development of the particular heifer in question. If 



COST OF RAISING CALVES 263 

the individual is well grown and lias a tendency to lay on 
fat she should be bred at an earlier age than one not so well 
grown and showing less tendency to flesh formation. The 
well developed Jersey should be bred to drop her first calf 
when she is not more than twenty-six months of age, and better 
twenty-four rather than twenty-eight months, while the heifer 
of retarded growth should be given two or four months more 
time in which to reach the size established for the breed, or 
twenty-six to thirty months. The aim should be to put the 
young animals oft' the boarder and onto the working list at as 
early an age as their physical development will permit without 
doing permanent harm. If bred too young the energies of the 
heifer are diverted to the development of the fcctus and later to 
milk yielding, with the result of retarding growth, sometimes 
amounting to actual stunting. 

The development of the dairy bull is not essentially differ- 
ent from that of the dairy heifer except that a little more grain 
and a little less of the bulky feeds may be fed. Over-fatness, 
however, is to be avoided as being, first, an unnecessary and 
expensive condition, and second, endangering the breeding 
power of the animal. Hay and skim milk may form the major 
portion of the ration, with grain fed as a conditioner. A large 
paunch is not desirable on the breeding sire, however, and may 
be avoided by feeding less roughage and more grain. 

Pasture Necessary for Young Stock. — Although the tender 
calf needs the protection of the stable more than the invigorat- 
ing effects of pasture, the yearling should certainly be forced to 
live upon pasture. I^ot only can young stock of this age 
make good use of cheap range, but if they are to develop hardi- 
hood, good health and vitality, they should be given ample pas- 
ture. One disadvantage found in the soiling system of cow feed- 
ing is that it does not provide means whereby the growing heifer 
can get the exercise essential to strength at maturity. 

Cost of Raising Calves. — This question has been studied in 
several states. By Trueman of Connecticut, the cost is fixed at 
about $66 for a two year old. From records kept for 117 calves 
in Wisconsin, Bennet and Cooper conclude as follows: 



264 CALF RAISING 

Cost of Raising Dairy Heifers in Wisconsin 

Cost to 1 yr. Cost to 2 yr3. 

Initial cost of calf $ 7.04 $ 7.04 

Feed 24.67 40.83 

Labor 4.45 7.81 

Interest, insurance, vipkeep, etc .... 6.36 13.73 

Gross cost $43.52 $09.41 

Credit for manure 3.00 8.00 

Xet cost $39.52 $61.41 

Tlie cost Oil any given farm will vary with the cheapness of 
])astiirag-e, value of hay oil the farm and cost of laboT, whether 
done by a high-priced hired man or by a child in the home. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Is "nature's way"' of raising calves sufficiently economical for present 

condition3? Why not? 

2. Figure the value of the milk consumed by the next veal calf produced 

on your farm. What costs have you observed? 

3. How should calves be raised? 

4. Wliy is a fall calf usually superior to a spring calf? 

5. Tell how to steal the calf from its mother. 

6. How should the calf be handled during the first 24 hours after removal? 

7. Tell how to teach a young calf to drink. 

8. Tell how to feed the calf from time of teaching to drink until three 

months old. 

9. How fast should a calf gain in weight from one week to one month ? 

From one month to three months? 

10. How young will calves eat hay? 

11. In what order should calves be fed? 

12. How should pasture be used for calves? 

13. How may calves be raised with use of the least possible amount of 

milk? 

14. What is the value of whey for calves? 

15. What are the chief causes of scouring in calves? 

16. How may calf scours be treated? 

17. How and why is bone meal used for young cattle? 

18. How may sucking often be stopped? 

19. Tell how to dehorn a calf. 

20. What inflvience has liberal feeding while young on size at maturity? 

21. At wliat age should heifer calves of the dairy breeds be bred? 

22. Tell how to develop the dairy-bred bull calf. 

23. To what class of young stock is pasture essential? 

24. About what does it cost to raise a heifer from birth to two years of age? 

25. How may the actual cost on any particular farm varj' ? 



PART V 

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION 



CHAPTER XXV 
CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING 

SiN^CE cow's milk is such an exceedingly important item in 
our present system of living and since the true value of the 
milk hinges so largely upon its cleanliness, it is highly impor- 
tant that the essentials of clean milk production be under- 
stood by milk producers. 

The cows should not only be healthy and in good physical 
condition, but also sufficiently clean to permit of milking with- 
out the heavy contamination so often following that process. 
To this end, the barnyards need be kept sufficiently clean and 
dry as to enable cows to walk freely without becoming dirty or, 
in other words, milk should not be pennitted to be sold where 
bad conditions cannot be rectified (Fig. 85). The ordinary- 
drinking ponds found in the cow pastures in so many parts 
of the country are sources of contamination. The cows wade 
in to drink, then defile the water until soon the whole is a 
fertile medium for the growth of many forms of slime and 
bacteria. The slimy stuff dries on the cows and is chaffed 
off into the pail at milking time. In dairy cow pastures such 
drinking ponds should be fenced and provided with a tank out 
of which water may be got without its becoming polluted. 

The milkers have been shown to be another fruitful source 
of contamination where care is not exercised in keeping the 
hands clean during milking. The milker's clothing is also an 
item in this connection. If dusty, contamination is practically 
sure to follow. The ordinary dirt on the milker's overalls, 
while not at all desirable, is not necessarily a source of contam- 
ination. White suits are nice if kept clean, but expensive. 
Ordinary blue or khaki overalls may be kept just as sanitary as 
white ones and show dirt much less. The milking should be 
done with dry hands. Wet handed milking is a filthy habit and 
entirely unnecessary. 

267 



268 



CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING 



Milking stools made of metal and so simply constructed 
that they may be readily washed are of some aid in the produc- 
tion of the highest class milk. Xaturally some of the effects of 
hand washing and udder cleaning will be lost if the milker is 
compelled to seize a dirty stool just before starting to milk. 
Though this is a minor item it nevertheless is one of the points to 
be obseiwed in the process of producing the highest class milk. 

The pails used are another factor. The ordinary open top 
milk pail seems to have been designed to catch all the dirt pos- 
sible. A pail 12 inches in diameter will have 113 square 



' El ' 



- + « 



ma 




Fig. 85.— a well-lighted dairy barn. Note that top sash of windows fall inward to aid 
in ventilation. Owned by H. P. Hood and Sons, Boston. (Courtesy of James Mfg. Co.) 

inches of dirt-catching surface, whereas one with half the open- 
ing will have only a quarter as much exposed area. Then 
again, if this open portion is raised to an angle shown in the 
accompanying illustration (Fig. 86), a much smaller dirt- 
catching area will be presented. There are many so-called 
sanitary milk pails on the market. Many are reasonably good, 
some are ridiculous. The construction of the pail within is 
quite as important as the closing of a part of the top. All seams 
should have been flushed full of solder, making it possible to 
clean them, or better the pail should be made of pressed tin. 
Every raw edge furnishes lodgement for dirt, wdiicli means food 
and home for putrefactive bacteria. 

The sterilization of pails and cans used about the dairy 
is essential in the production of milk which is to have good 
keeping qualities. In order to sterilize, boiling water or live 



STRAINERS 



269 



steam is necessary, preferably the latter. This may be used 
by inverting the vessel over the steam jet or by placing the article 
to be sterilized in an oven which is nearly steam tight. There 
are on the market immense autoclaves for this purpose, but they 
are not essential to success. A concrete or even wooden box built 
at very nominal expense will serve nearly if not quite as well. 
It is desirable tliat such sterilizer boxes be provided with a 
door on either side so that the freshly washed dairy tools may 
be put into the sterilizer from the wash room side and removed 
from the milk bottling side of the room. 





Fig. 86. — Milk pails. No. 1 is the common open mouth kind. Some are too high and 
sharp for comfort in milking. That on either end of the lower row is a very good pail. 

Strainers are at best a crude attempt to undo something 
which should not have been necessary. Strainers as ordinarily 
made cause the hairs, chaff and other coarse dirt to be washed 
thoroughly as each successive pail is poured over them. The 
best sort of strainer is' a broad one consisting of a layer of 
absorbent cotton between two sheets of clean cheese cloth. 

A clean bam is a material aid in the production of clean 
milk (Figs. 87, 88 and 89). Right here, however, distinction 



270 



CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING 



needs to be made between apparent and real dirtiness. Bacteria 
cannot rise from a moist or wet floor, neither will they long 
remain floating in a damp atmosphere. Therefore, if a stable 
floor is not so dirty as to allow pieces of filth to be picked np by 
the cow and carried to the pail, a floor which is apparently very 
dirty, but moist, may be of less consequence than a thoroughly 




Fi(i. s7. — Typical and inexpensive well-made Southern cow stable. Note the open 
corn crib construction of south side (left) and ventilation loft at right. Owned by Mr. 
Van Dyke, Hope, Arkansas. (Photographed by author.) 

dry and apparently cleaner condition. Fine, dry dust adheres 
to the hair of the cow as she lies in her bed and is with difficulty 
removed by hand or brush before milking. A stable atmos- 
phere filled with dust from old hay is bad. 

Flies are filthy things at best. They breed in the manure 
and carry portions of it on their bodies wherever they go. A 
fly swimming in milk or lyiii^ in a strainer soon becomes 



FLIES 



271 



waslied fairly clean. The germs with which it was more or 
less covered become dissolved free from the dirt and dissemi- 
nated throughout the entire mass of milk. Flies may be pre- 
vented around the stable and country home to some extent by 
careful removal of barnyard manure and other waste. At- 
tempts are also being made to kill the larva or maggot in the 
manure heap by sprinkling over it powdered borax, also by con- 




FiG. 88. — Stable, cows facing outward. Note method of building in the blocks for the 
cows to stand on. (Courtesy Janaes Mtg. Co.) 

structing cement pits over which the manure is laid on slats. 
The larva? fall through and are killed in the kerosene water 
below. After flies have reached the adult form some may be 
caught by means of various ily traps. About the stable and 
back door of the kitchen and like places more effective exter- 
mination of flies can probably be brought about by poisoning, 
one of the best means known to the writer being skim milk into 
which formaldehvde has been stirred at the rate of three tea- 



272 



CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING 



spoonfuls to each pint of milk. The greatest aid of all toward 
a flyless farm is the removal of manure daily to the field. This 
is impracticable under many circumstances, but the knowledge of 
the facts should lead to efforts in that direction. 

Pure water is highly desirable. This is particularly so if 
the cows are permitted to wade into the water to drink. It is 
quite as much the contamination of the udder and teats of the 
cow as the drinking of bad water which causes inferiority in 
the milk produced. Olean water for the cow is necessary to 
the production of the best flavored milk. 






FiQ. 89. — Inexpensive yet clean cow house. Note liberal use of whitewash. Owned by 
F. Gruenhagen, Brainerd, Minn. (Photographed by author.) 

Quick thorough cooling is the second most important sin- 
gle item in the production of milk which shall stay sweet 
(Fig. 90). Keeping the dirt out is of first importance. Vari- 
ous sorts of coolers have been devised, many having merit. 
Where abundance of flowing cold water is obtainable a cooler of 
the form shown in figure 113 is desired, but where flowing 
water is not at hand one of the type shown in figure 114, which 
when filled with water will admit also a chunk of ice, is desir- 
able. Either of these forms will do good work when the water 
is sufficiently cold and the milk is not forced over too rapidly. 
It is naturally important that there be no blowing of dust 



SHIPPING 273 

against this surface during cooling, otherwise precautions taken 
during milking may be largely nullilied. 

Cold water taidcs of some form are necessary on practically 
all milk-producing farms. The efficiency of cold water over 
air of the same temperature as cooling agent can hardly be over- 
estimated. A cold water tank will be found necessary during 
the summer and even all winter in some sections. The ideal tank 
would be one made of cement placed low in the milk room, thus 
obviating the necessity of lifting the cans high. If it is not 
possible to pump water through this tank for the stock, even 
greater efficiency in cooling may be got by placing in the tank- 
water a few chunks of ice. A well insulated tank tilled with 
water in which are floating several cakes of ice forms the most 



PROGENY OF A P<^ ^ 
SINGLE GERM ®1.^in4 
NTWELVC HOURS WP?:r!^K Pn 

Fig. 90. — Showing the effect of prompt cooling on the number of bacteria in milk. 

economical and efficient method known for keeping milk sweet. 
Shipping. — Much remains to be accomplished in the matter 
of shipping milk. Xo matter how much care has been bestowed 
during the milking process some dirt, which means some germs, 
is sure to find its Avay into the milk, though germs are held 
down or prevented from growing by the cold temperature imme- 
diately given. They are present, however, to grow the moment 
the milk becomes warm enough and this point is reached at about 
50 degrees. At 60 degrees the lactic acid germ grows rapidly. 
Cans of milk delivered to the railroad station and there allowed 
to stand in the sun very soon waj'm to such a point that the 
bacteria within commence gTowing ra])idly. Insulating jackets 
are on the market which aid consideral)ly, but these are 
18 



274 CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING 

somewhat expensive and crude after all. Shipping cans made 
with doaible walls are also on the market, but, being valuable, 
are liable to be lost. This naturally discourages the shipper 
who endeavors to do especially good work. Where possible it is 
highly desirable that the company purchasing the milk or the 
farmers in some co-operative arrangement provide a cold wait- 
ing room for the milk at the station and then that the trans- 
portation company provide well iced cars for the milk during 
transit. Only by providing these final arrangements can the 
efiicient work done earlier in the process be supported and 
sound milk be delivered to the receiving companies in the cities. 

The New York Classes of Milk.— The city of New York 
established three grades of milk, as follows: 

Grade " A " — For Infants and Children. — 1. Raw. — Re- 
quirements. — Cows to be tuberculin tested and physically ex- 
amined. Milk not to contain more than 60,000 bacteria per 
C.C. when delivered (Fig. 90). Dairies to score not less than 
'75, 25 on equipment and 50 on method. Delivered within 36 
hours. Bottled. Labeled *' Grade A Raw." 

2. Pasteurized. — Cows physically examined. — Milk not to 
contain more than 30,000 bacteria per c.c. when delivered; not 
more than 200,000 before pasteurized. Pasteurization to be 
done at 142 to 145 degTees Fahrenheit for 30 minutes. Dairies 
to score not less than 68 per cent, 25 on equipment and 43 
on method. Delivered 36 hours from production. Bottled. 
Labeled " Grade A Pasteurized." 

Grade " B " for Adults. — 1. Cows to be j^hysically exam- 
ined. — Not more tlian 1,500,000 bacteria per c.c. when pas- 
teurized, nor more than 100,000 bacteria per c.c. when deliv- 
ered. Pasteurized at 142 to 145 degrees — 30 minutes. Dairies 
to score not less than 55 per cent, 20 on equipment and 35 
on method. Delivered before 36 hours old (cream may be 
72 hours old). May be delivered in bottles, or cans, labeled 
" Grade B Pasteurized." 

Grade " C " — For Coohlng aovd Manufacturing. — 1. Cows 
physically examined. — Bacteria not more than 1,500,000 per 



QUESTIONS 275 

cc. when pasteurized, nor more than 300,000 per c.c. when de- 
livered. To be pasteurized at 145 degrees for 30 minutes. 
Dairies to score 40 points. Delivery in 48 hours after pas- 
teurization. Shall be delivered in cans. Labeled " Grade C 
(for cooking)." 

2. Condensed Skimmed Milk. — Cans to be painted blue, etc. 

Dairy Score Card. — The score card system of comparing 
the cleanliness of dairy barns and the methods of handling the 
product is of value not only for the direct purpose of com- 
parison but to point out as well to the workers in the dairy 
where to look for trouble. 

Various score cards have been devised, but the one that was 
developed by the Federal Daiiy Division and approved by 
the Official Dairy Instructors' Association has been most widely 
adopted. The score card from Rochester, New York, is typical 
of the one in most general use (see pp. 276-277). 

Material vs. Method. — \^Tiile the dairy score card has its 
uses it must not be judged that a high scoring stable will pro- 
duce high scoring milk, or that a low scoring stable necessar- 
ily means low scoring milk. There is no relationship between 
expensiveness of bam and quality of milk produced and very- 
little between score f.nd quality. This becomes true because the 
methods employed are so much more important than the material. 

A silk garment may be soiled and a cotton one the acme of 
cleanliness. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How may the pasture drinking pond, affect the sanitary character of 

the milk produced? 

2. What points of cleanliness should the milker observe? 

3. What points about a milk pail are important in clean milk production? 

4. Distinguish between real and apparent dirtiness in stables. 

5. Where do flies breed? Name one good poison for them. 

G. ^^'hat efl'ect does the purity of water drunk by the cow have upon the 
quality of the milk produced? 

7. What is the second most important point in the production of good 

milk? Wiiat is the first? 

8. How should milk or cream be kept cool? 

9. What precautions should be taken in shipping milk into the cities? 
10. Discuss the score card used for dairy barn and milk rooms. 



276 



CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING 



Score Card for Dairies 

(Rochester Health Bureau, New York State Department of Health) 
[Indorsed by the Official Dairy Instructors' Association. Subject to revision at future 

meetings.] 

Owner or lessee of farm 

P. O. address County 

Total number of cows Number milking Gallons of milk produced daily 

Product is sold by producer in families, hotels, restaurants, stores, to dealer 

For milk supply of 

Permit No Date of inspection 19 

Remarks : 





SCORE 


METHODS 


SCORE 


EQUIPMENT 












Perfect 


Allowed 




Perfect 


Allowed 


cows 






COWS 






Health 

Apparently in good 






Clean 


8 








(Free from visible dirt, 6.) 






health i 












* If tested with tubercu- 






1 






lin within a year and 






STABLES 






no tuberculosis is 






Cleanliness of stables 


C 




found, or if tested 
within six months 






Floor 1 










Walls 1 






and all reacting ani- 






Ceilings and ledges .... 1 






mals removed 5 




1 


Mangers and partitionsl 






(If tested within a year 






Windows 1 






and reacting animals are 






' Stable air at milking time . 


5 




found and removed, 3.) 






Freedom from dust .... 3 






Food (clean and whole- 






Freedom from odors. . .2 








1 
1 




Cleanliness of bedding . . . 


1 
2 




Water (clean and fresh) . . . 




Clean 1 

Well drained 1 




STABLES 










Location of stable 


2 










Well drained 1 






Removal of manure daily 






Free from contaminat- 
ing surroundings .... 1 






to 50 feet from stable . . 


2 














Construction of stable. . . . 


4 










Tight, sound floor and 






MILK ROOM OR MILK HOUSE 






proper gutter 2 






1 Cleanliness of milk room. 


2 




Smooth, tight walls and 












ceiling 1 






j UTENSILS AND MILKING 






Proper stall, tie, and 

manger 1 

Provision for light: Four 

sq. ft. of glass per cow 

(Three sq. ft.,3;2sq. ft., 

2;lsq.ft.,l. Deduct 






Care and cleanliness of 






4 




utensils 

Thoroughly washed. . .2 
Sterilized in steam for 

15 minutes 3 


8 




for uneven distribu- 
tion.) 
Bedding 






(Placed over steam .jet, 
or scalded with boil- 






1 




ing water, 2.) 







SCORE CARD FOR DAIRIES 
(Score Card for Dairies. — Continued) 



277 





SCORE 


1 

METHODS 

1 


SCORE 




Perfect 


Allowed 


Perfect 


Allowed 




7 

1 
1 

5 

1 
1 

1 
2 

1 

1 





Protected from contami- 
nation 3 

Cleanliness of milking .... 

Clean, dry hands 3 

Udders washed and 
wiped 6 

(Udders cleaned with 
moist cloth, 4 ; cleaned 
with dry cloth or 
brush at least 15 min- 
utes before milking,!.) 

HANDLING THE MILK 

Cleanliness of attendants 

in milk room 

Milk removed immedi- 

) ately from stable wiih- 

j out pouring from pail . . 

Cooled immediately after 

1 milking each cow 

Cooled below 50° F 

(51° to 55°, 4; 56° to 
60°, 2.) 

Stored below 50° F 

(51° to 55°, 2; 56° to 
60°, 1.) 
Transportation below 
50° F . . . . 


9 

2 

2 

2 
5 

3 
2 




Provision for fresh air, 
controllable flue system 3 
(Windows hinged at 

bottom, 1.5; sliding 

windows, 1; other 

openings, 0.5.) 
Cubic feet of space per 

cow, 500 ft 3 

(Less than 500 ft., 2; 

less than 400 ft., 1; 

less than 300 ft., 0.) 
Provision for controlling 

temperature 1 

UTENSILS 

Construction and condi- 
tion of utensils 

Water for cleaning 

(Clean, convenient, and 
abundant.) 

Small-top milking pail. . . . 




Clean milking suits 

MILK ROOM OR MILK HOUSE 

Location: Free from con- 
taminating surroundings 

Construction of milk room 
Floor, walls and ceiling 1 
Light, ventilation, 
screens 1 

Separate rooms for- wash- 
ing utensils and handling 
milk 

Facilities for steam 

(Hot water. 0.5.) 




(51° to 55°, 1.5; 56° to 
60°, 1.) 

(If delivered twice a 
day, allow perfect 
score for storage and 
transportation.) 

Total 




Total 


40 




60 1 



* Alternate. If pasteurized by holding process according to the Sanitary Code, Chap. Ill, 
Reg. 12; score, 5. 
Equipment + Methods — Final Scora 

Note 1 — If any exceptionally filthy condition is found, particularly dirty utensils, the 
total score may be further limited. 

Note 2 — If the water is exposed to dangerous contamination, or there is evidence of the 
presence of a dangerous disease in animals or attendants, the score shall be 0. 



Inspector. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR THE PRODUCTION AND 
DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK* 

(Adopted by the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions, May 1, 1912.) 

HYGIENE OF THE DAIRY 

Under the ^Supervision and Control of the Veterinarian. 

1. Pastures or Paddocks. — Pastures or paddocks to which 
the cows have access shall be free from marshes or stagnant 
pools, crossed by no stream which might become dangerously 
contaminated, at sufficient distance from offensive conditions 
to suffer no bad effects from them, and shall be free from plants 
which affect the milk deleteriously. 

2. Surroundings or Buildings. — The surroundings of all 
buildings shall be kept clean and free from accumulations of 
dirt, rubbish, decayed vegetable or animal matter or animal 
waste, and the stable yard shall be well drained. 

3. Location of Buildings. — Buildings in which certified 
milk is produced and handled shall be so located as to insure 
proper shelter and good drainage, ajid at sufficient distance 
from other buildings, dusty roads, cultivated and dusty fields, 
and all other possible sources of contamination ; provided, in 
the case of unavoidable proximity to dusty roads or fields, the 
exposed side shall be screened with cheesecloth. 

4. Construction of Stables. — The stables shall be con- 
structed so as to facilitate the prompt and easy removal of waste 
products (Fig. 91). The floors and platforms shall be made 
of cement or other nonabsorbent material and the gutters of 
cement only. The floors shall be properly graded and drained, 
and the manure gutters shall be from 6 to 8 inches deep and 
so placed in relation lo the platform that all manure will drop 
into them (Fig. 92). 

5. The inside surface of the walls and all interior construc- 

* U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 1, 1913. 
278 



VENTILATION 



279 



tion shall be smootli, witli tight joints, and shall be capable of 
shedding water. The ceiling shall be of smooth material and 
dust tight. All horizontal and slanting surfaces which might 
harbor dust shall be avoided. 

6. Drinking and Feed Troughs. — Drinking troughs or 
basins shall be drained and cleaned each day, and feed and mix- 
ing troughs shall be kept in a clean and sanitary condition. 




Fia. 91. — Well-finished dairy barn on farm of F. O. 

James Mfg. Co.) 



Lowden, Oregon, 111. (Courtesy 



7. Stanchions. — Stanchions, when used, shall be con- 
structed of iron pipes or hardwood, and throat latches shall be 
provided to prevent the cows from lying down between the 
time of cleaning and the time of milking, 

8. Ventilation. — The cow stables shall be provided with 



280 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK 

adequate ventilation either by means of some approved arti- 
ficial device, or by the substitution of cheesecloth for glass in 
the windows, each cow to be provided with a minimum of 600 
cubic feet of air space, 

9. Windows. — A sufficient number of windows shall be 
installed and so distributed as to provide satisfactory light and 
a maximum of sunshine, 2 feet square of window area to each 




Fig. 92. — These cows keep themselves clean by stepping forward to lie down in front 
of the 2 X 4-inch stringer which holds the bedding in place. Note the broad shallow gutter, 
safe and easy to clean. (Owned by C. C. Graves, Maryville, Mo.) 

600 cubic feet of air space to represent the minimum. The 
coverings of such windows shall be kept free from dust and dirt. 

10. Exclusion of Flies, Etc. — AH necessary measures should 
be taken to prevent the entrance of flies and other insects and 
rats and other vermin into all the buildings. 

11. Exclusion of Animals from the Herd — 'No horses, 
hogs, dogs, or other animals or fowls shall be allowed to come in 



A WELL BALANCED RATION 281 

contact with the certified herd, either in the stables or elsewhere. 

12. Bedding. — Xo dusty or moldy hay, or straw, bedding 
from horse stalls, or other unclean animals shall be used for 
bedding the cows. Only bedding which is clean, dry, and 
absorbent may be used, preferably shavings or straw. 

13. Cleaning Stable and Disposal of Manure. — Soiled bed- 
ding and manure shall be removed at least twice daily, and the 
floors shall be swept and kept free from refuse. Such cleaning 
shall be done at least one hour before the milking time. 
Manure, when removed, shall be drawn to the field or tem- 
porarily stored in containers so screened as to exclude flies. 
Manure shall not be even temporarily stored within 300 feet of 
the barn or dairy building (Fig. 93). 

14. Cleaning of Cows, — Each cow in the herd shall be 
groomed daily, and no manure, mud, or filth shall be allowed to 
remain u})on her during milking; for cleaning, a vacuum 
apparatus is recommended. 

15. Clipping. — Long hairs shall be clipped from the udder 
and flanks of the cow and from the tail above the bnish. The 
hair on the tail shall be cut- so that the brush may be well 
above the ground. 

16. Cleaning of Udders. — The udders and teats of the cow 
shall be cleaned before milking ; they shall be washed with a 
cloth and water, and dry wiped with another clean sterilized 
cloth — a separate cloth for drying each cow. 

17. Feeding. — All feedstuffs shall be kept in an apartment 
separate from and not directly communicating with the cow 
barn. They shall be brought into the barn only immediately 
before feeding hour, which shall follow the milking. 

18. Only those feeds shall be used which consist of fresh, 
palatable, or nutritious materials, such as will not injure the 
health of the cows or unfavorably affect the taste or character of 
the milk. Any dirty or moldy feed or feed in a state of decom- 
position or putrefaction shall not be given. 

19. A well-balanced ration shall be used, and all changes of 
feed shall be made slowly. The first few feedings of grass. 



282 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK 




o 6 



"So 



oO 



MILK AND CALVING PERIOD , 283 

alfalfa, ensilage, green corn, or other green feeds shall be given 
in small rations and increased gradually to full ration. 

20. Exercise. — All dairy cows shall be turned out for exer- 
cise at least two hours in each twenty-four in suitable weather. 
Exercise yards shall be kept free from manure and other filth. 

21. Washing of Hands — Conveniently located facilities 
shall be provided for the milkers to wash their hands before and 
during milking, 

22. The hands of the milkers shall be thoroughly washed 
with soap, water, and brush and carefully dried on a clean 
towel immediately before milking. The hands of the milkers 
shall be rinsed with clean water and carefully dried before 
milking each cow. The practice of moistening the hands with 
milk is forbidden. 

23. Milking Clothes — Clean overalls, jumper, and cap 
shall be worn during milking. They shall be washed or steril- 
ized each day and iised for no other purpose, and when not in 
use they shall be kept in a clean place, protected from dust 
and dirt. 

24. Things to be Avoided by Milkers. — While engaged 
about the dairy or in handling "the milk employees shall not use 
tobacco nor intoxicating liquors. They shall keep their fingers 
away from their nose and mouth, and no milker shall peiTait 
his hands, fingers, lips, or tongue to come in contact with 
milk intended for sale. 

25. During milking the milkers shall be careful not to touch 
anything but the clean top of the milking stool, the milk pail, 
and the cow's teats. 

26. Milkers are forbidden to spit upon the walls or floors 
of stables, or upon the walls or floors of milk houses, or into 
the water used for cooling the milk or washing the utensils. 

27. Fore Milk. — The first streams from each teat shall be 
rejected, as this fore milk contains large numbers of bac- 
teria. Such milk shall be collected into a separate vessel and 
not milked onto the floors or into the gutters. The milking 
shall be done rapidly and quietly, and the cows shall be 
treated kindly. 

28. Milk and Calving Period. — Milk from all cows shall be 



284 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK 

excluded for a period of 45 days before and 7 days after 
parturition. 

29. Bloody and Stringy Milk. — If milk from anj^ cow is 
bloody and stringy or of unnatural appearance, the milk from 
that cow shall be rejected and the cow isolated from the herd 
until the cause of such abnormal apearance has been determined 
and removed, special attention being given in the meantime to 
the feeding or to possible injuries. If dirt gets into the pail, 
the milk shall be discarded and the pail washed before it is used. 

yu. Make-up of Herd. — Xo cows except those receiving the 
same supervision and care as the certified herd shall be kept in 
the same barn or brought in contact with them. 

31. Employees Other Than Milkers — The requirements 
for milkers, relative to garments and cleaning of hands, shall 
apply to all other persons handling the milk, and children unat- 
tended by adults shall not be allowed in the dairy nor in the 
stable during milking. 

32. Straining and Strainers — Promptly after the milk is 
drawn ' it shall be removed from the stable to a clean room 
(Fig. 94), and then emptied from the milk pail to the can, being 
strained through strainers made of a double layer of finely 
meshed cheesecloth or absorbent cotton thoroughly sterilized. 
Several strainers shall be provided for each milking in order 
that they may be frequently changed. 

33. Dairy Building. — A dairy building shall be provided 
which shall be located at a distance from the stable and dwell- 
ing prescribed by the local commission, and there shall be no 
hog-pen, privy, or manure pile at a higher level or within -'500 
feet of it. 

34. The dairy building shall be kept clean and shall not 
be used for purposes other than the handling and storing of 
milk and milk utensils (Figs. 95 and 119). It shall be pro- 
vided with light and ventilation, and the floors shall be graded 
and water-tight. 

35. The dairy building shall be well lighted and screened 
and drained through well-trapped pipes. Xo animals shall be 
allowed therein. ISTo part of the dairy building shall be used 
for dwelling or lodging purposes, and the bottling room shall 



CLEANING AND STERILIZING OF BOTTLES 



285 



be used for no other jjurpose than to provide a place for clean 
milk utensils and for handling the milk. During bottling this 
room shall be entered only by persons employed therein. The 
bottling room shall be kept scrnpulously clean and odorless. 

36. Temperature of Milk. — Proper cooling to reduce the 
temperature to forty-five degrees F. shall be used, and aerators 
shall be so situated that they can be protected from flies, 
dust, and odors. The milk shall be cooled immediately after 
being milked, and maintained at a temperature between thirty- 
five and forty-five degrees F. until delivered to the consumer. 







Fig. 94. — Elevation of certified milk house showing arrangement of milk spout through the 
wall from the weigh room into the milk room. There is no door connecting the two rooms. 

37. Sealing of Bottles — Milk, after being cooled and bot- 
tled, shall be immediately sealed in a manner satisfactory to the 
commission, but such seal shall include a sterile hood which 
completely covers the lip of the bottle. 

38. Cleaning and Sterilizing of Bottles. — The dairy build- 
ing shall be provided with appr<:)ved apparatus for the cleansing 
and sterilizing of all bottles and utensils used in milk pro- 
duction. All bottles and utensils shall be thoroughly cleaned 
by hot water and sal soda, or equally pure agent, rinsed until 
the cleaning water is thoroughly removed, then exposed to live 
steam or boiling water at least twenty minutes, and then kept 
inverted until used in a place free from dust and other contam- 
inating materials. 



286 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK 



39. Utensils. — All uteiisils shall be so constructed as to be 
easily cleaned. The milk pail should preferably have an ellip- 
tical opening 5 by 7 inches in diameter. The cover of this 







C^'HUmV tKHK KOUS^ 



Fig. 95. — Plan of milk house connected to, yet separated from, the cow barn. There 
ia no door between the weigh room and the milk room. (Adapted from the certified milk 
plant of "The Arden Farms," St. Paul, Minn.) 

pail should be so convex as to make the entire interior of the 
pail visible and accessible for cleaning. The pail shall be made 
of heavy seamless tin, and with seams which are flushed and 
made smooth by solder. Wooden pails, galvanized-iron pails, 



VETERINARY SUPERVISION OF HERD 287 

or pails made of rough, porous materials, are forbidden. All 
utensils used in milking shall be kept in good repair. 

40. Water Supply. — The entire water supply shall be abso- 
lutely free from contamination, and be sufficient for all dairy 
purposes. It shall be protected against flood or surface drainage, 
and shall be convenient!}^ situated in relation to the milk house. 

41. Privies, etc., in Relation to Water Supply. — Privies, 
pig-pens, manure piles, and all other possible sources of con- 
tamination shall be so situated on the farm as to render impos- 
sible the contamination of the water supply, and shall be so 
protected by use of screens and other measures as to prevent 
their becoming breeding grounds for flies. 

42. Toilet Rooms. — Toilet facilities for the milkers shall 
be provided and located outside of the stable or milk house. 
These toilets shall be properly screened, shall be kept clean, and 
shall be accessible to wash basins, water, nail brush, soap and 
towels, and the milkers shall be required to wash and dry their 
hands immediately after leaving the toilet room. 

TEANSPOKTATION 

43. In transit the milk packages shall be kept free from 
dust and dirt. The wagon, trays, and crates shall be kept 
scrupulously cleaii. Ko bottles shall be collected from houses 
in which communicable diseases prevail, unless a separate 
wagon is used and under conditions prescribed by the depart- 
ment of health and the medical milk commission. 

44. All certified milk shall reach the consumer within thirty 
hours after milking. 

VETERINARY SUPERVISION OF THE HERD 

45. Tuberculin Test. — The herd shall be free from tubercu- 
losis, as shown by the proper application of the tuberculin test. 
The test shall be applied in accordance with the rules and regu- 
lations of the United States Government, and all reactors shall 
be removed immediately from the farm. 

46. ISTo new animals shall be admitted to the herd without 
first having passed a satisfactory tuberculin test, made in accord- 
ance with the rules and regulations mentioned ; the tuberculin 



288 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK 

to be obtained and applied only by the official veterinarian of 
the commission. 

•i7, Inmiediately following the application of the tiibercnlin 
test to a herd for the purpose of eliminating tuberculous cattle, 
the cow stable and exercising yards shall be disinfected by the 
veterinary inspector in accordance with the rules and regula- 
tions of the United States Government. 

48. A second tuberculin test shall follow each primary test 
after an interval of six months, and shall be applied in accord- 
ance with the rules and regulations mentioned. Thereafter, 
tuberculin tests shall be reapplied annually, but it is recom- 
mended that the retests be applied semi-annually. 

49. Identification of Cows. — Each dairy cow in each of the 
certified herds shall be labeled or tagged with a number or mark 
which will permanently identify her. 

50. Herd-book Record.— Each cow in the herd shall be reg- 
istered in a herd book, which register shall be accurately kept 
so that her entrance and departure from the herd and her tuber- 
culin testing can be identified. 

51. A copy of this herd-book record shall be kept in the 
hands of the veterinarian of the medical milk commission under 
which the dairy farm is operating, and the veterinarian shall be 
made responsible for the accuracy of this record. 

52. Dates of Tuberculin Tests. — The dates of the annual 
tuberculin tests shall be definitely arranged by the medical milk 
commission, and all of the results of such tests shall be recorded 
by the veterinarian and regularly repoa-ted to the secretary of 
the medical milk commission issuing the certificate. 

5^. The results of all tuberculin tests shall be kept on file by 
each medical milk commission, and a copy of all such tests 
shall be made available to the American Association of Medical 
]Milk Commissions for statistical purposes. 

54. The properly designated officers of the American Asso- 
ciation of Medical Milk Commissions should receive copies of 
reports of all of the annual, semi-annual, and other official 
tuberculin tests which are made and keep copies of tlie same on 
file and compile them annually for the use of the association. 



BACTERIOLOGICAL STANDARDS 289 

55. Disposition of Cows Sick with Disease Other Than 
Tuberculosis. — Cows having rheumatism, leucorrhea, inflam- 
mation of the uterus, severe diarrhea, or disease of the udder, 
or cows that from any other cause may be a menace to the 
herd shall be removed from the herd and placed in a building 
separate froin that which may be used for the isolation of cows 
with tuberculosis, unless such building has been properly disin- 
fected since it was last used for this purpose. The milk from 
such cows shall not be used nor shall the cows' be restored to the 
herd until permission has been given by the veterinary inspector 
after a careful physical examination. 

56. Notification of Veterinary Inspector. — In the event of 
the occurrence of any of the diseases just described between the 
visits of the veterinary inspector, or if at any time a number of 
cows become sick at one time in such a way as to suggest the 
outbreak of a contagious disease or poisoning, it shall be the 
duty of the dairyman to withdraw such sickened cattle from the 
herd, to destroy their milk, and to notify the veterinary inspec- 
tor by telegraph or telephone immediately. 

57. Emaciated Cows. — Cows that are emaciated from 
chronic diseases or from any cause that in the opinion of the 
veterinary inspector may endanger the quality of the milk, shall 
be removed from the herd. 

BACTEKIOLOGICAL STANDARDS 

58. Bacterial Counts. — Certified milk shall contain less 
than 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter when delivered. In 
case a count exceeding 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter is 
found, daily counts shall be made, and if normal counts are not 
restored within ten days the certificate shall be suspended. 

59. Bacterial counts shall be made at least once a week. 

60. Collection of Samples.— The samples to be examined 
shall be obtained from milk as offered for sale and shall be taken 
by a representative of the milk commission. The samples shall 
be received in the original packages, in properly iced containers, 
and they shall be so kept until examined, so as to limit as far as 
possible changes in their bacterial content. 

61. For the purpose of ascertaining the temperature, a 
19 



290 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK 

separate original package shall be used, and the temperature 
taken at the time of collecting the sample, using for the pur- 
pose a standardized thermometer graduated in the centigrade 

CHEMICAL STANDARDS AND METHODS 

The methods that must be followed in carrying out the 
chemical investigations essential to the protection of certified 
milks are so complicated that in order to keep the fees of the 
chemist at a reasonable figure, there must be eliminated from 
the examination those procedures which, whilst they might be 
helpful and interesting, are in no sense necessary. 

For this reason the determination of the water, the total 
solids and the milk sugar is not required as a part of the 
routine examination. 

70. The chemical analysis shall be made by a competent 
chemist desigTiated by the medical milk commission. 

Yl. Method of Obtaining Samples. — The samples to be ex- 
amined by the chemist shall have been examined previously 
by the bacteriologist designated by the medical milk commis- 
sion as to temperature, odor, taste, and bacterial content. 

72. Fat Standards. — The fat standard for certified milk 
shall be 4 per cent, with a permissible range of variation of 
from 3.5 to 4.5 per cent. 

73. The fat standard for certified cream shall be not less 
than 18 per cent. 

74. If it is desired to sell higher fat-percentage milks or 
creams as certified milks or creams, the range of variation for 
such milks shall be 0.5 per cent on either side of the advertised 
percentage and the range of variations for such creams shall be 2 
per cent on either side of the advertised percentage. 

75. The fat content of certified milks and creams shall be 

determined at least once each month. 

* # ****** * 

87. Specific Gravity. — The specific gravity of certified milk 
shall range from 1.029 to 1.034. 

88. The specific gravity shall be determined at least each 
month. 



PART VI 

FARM DAIRYING 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE FARM MILK HOUSE 

Any farmer with ten or more cows used for purposes of 
cream or milk production can ill afford to be without some clean 
and convenient place in which to separate the milk and keep the 
cream. The separator must be housed, preferably in a place 
free from dust and away from odors. The cream-cooling tank 
which occasionally is found in the yard by the pump, protected 
from sun and dust by old boards or a door, would last longer 
and preserve the cream better if inside a building. To keep the 
cream cool in summer and to prevent it from freezing in winter 
are both important. If we add to these concrete advantages the 
further fact that far more pleasure and satisfaction can be got 
from work when performed in a more definite and sanitary way, 
we have ample reason to encourage the constniction of modest 
dairy buildings. The cost wall vary with the requirements, from 
about seventy-five dollars up, but the interest on the investment 
may be many times made during the year through saving milk 
or cream which otherwise would be damaged or even spoiled. 

EEQUIREMEXTS 

Plan " A " for Ten to Twenty Cows — ^^^lere a separator is 
turned by hand, milk fed out while fresh and cream sold from 
two to three times a week, a building need be only 10 by 10 feet 
in size and provided inside with a separator on a deep founda- 
tion with a well insulated tank for holding the cream in cold 
water and a small table on which to work. If it is desired with 
this to have a small gasoline engine the building should be made 
about two feet longer, or 10 by 12 feet, as sliov/n in plan " A." 
It is preferable that the engine be kept in an adjoining room. 

The cost of the material for this house will be approximately 
$90 and the labor, if done by a carpenter, about $50, or a total 
of about $140. 

Plan " B " for Fifteen to Thirty Cows. — Whenever twenty 

293 



294 THE FARM MILK HOUSE 

or more cows are used in the dairy it is highly desirable indeed 
that most, if not all, of the work, such as cleaning separator and 
cans, be done in the dairy house rather than in the kitchen. It is 
also very desirable that the well be located in conjunction with 
it. This will necessitate an engine for the running of the separa- 
tor and occasional pumping, an upright boiler, washing sink, 
pail racks, and a Babcock milk tester outfit. 

To use this quantity of equipment a milk house at least 10 
by 18 feet will be needed and one 12 by 20 feet will be none too 
large for convenience. Plan " B " is designed to indicate size and 
arrangement of building for plant of this size. If the boiler or 
water heater is not installed the space occupied by the boiler 
and fuel bin may very conveniently be used as a work bench. 

The material will cost about $150 and the labor about $100 
more, making a total cost of about $250. 

Plan " C " for Twenty-five to Fifty Cows with Ice House 
Attached. — There are occasionally farms in which a somewhat 
more efficient, if more expensive, building is desired. In plan 
" C " it will be noticed that the end of the milk house encloses 
the base of the windmill tower and that within this space is 
located the boiler, engine, and pump and that on the opposite end 
of the building is the ice house. This may be of the old sort, 
namely, of cheap lumber with the ice buried in saw dust ; but 
preferably, the ice house may be insulated so thoroughly that 
the ice within will keep well without being covered by saw dust 
or any other material. The milk house proper is set between the 
two, the engine house and the ice house (Figs. 9G and 97). 

Where the milk house can be located at a distance not too 
great from the dwelling house it will be found exceedingly con- 
venient to have a small refrigerator room built against the side 
of the insulated ice house with conductor pipes leading from the 
floor of the refrigerator to the floor of the ice house and from 
the top of the refrigerator back into the farther side and top of 
the ice room (Fig. 98). This will provide a circulation of cold 
air such as to maintain a temperature of 40 degrees or lower 
in the refrigerator room, providing, of course, it is reasonably 
well insulated, and will at the same time keep the room dry. 



PLAN "C" WITH ICE HOUSE ATTACHED 295 




296 



THE FARM MILK HOUSE 



The ice chute at one side is provided in order that the ice 
may be taken out of the ice house without exposing the cold inter- 
ior to the outdoor weather. It is also an entry for the cold 
room to save waste of cold air. A simple ladder may be con- 
structed on the wall of the chute next to the refrigerator room. 
A series of doors in the side of the ice house, somewhat after the 
manner of a silo, provides means for throwing the ice out. A 
plank floor should be made at the bottom of the chute where the 
ice will be found easily available for use in the cream tank, or 
ready for any use. The ice house if filled ten feet high will hold 
about 35 tons of ice. Built of wood with cement floor reasonably 
well made, this building will cost approximately $400. 




Fia. 97. — Combination ice, dairy and power house on farm of F. Groenhagen, Brainerd, 
Minn. (Photo by author.) 

The cold water tank for keeping milk and cream sweet is 
about the most important single piece of equipment about the 
dairy. This tank under most circumstances should be located in 
such a place that all Avater pumped for the stock shall first flow 
through this tank around the cans of cream and milk. In this 
way the cream gets the " cold " and the animals are provided 
with the more temperate water and both are benefited thereby. 

^^Tlere eight-gallon or ten-gallon cans are to be handled it is 
wise where possible to build the tank low in the cement floor to 
avoid excessive lifting. The sides of the tank may well be built 
up some six or eight inches above the floor level. 



THE COLD WATER TANK 



297 



To keep the cans from tipping when not full, compartments 
mav be built by means of galvanized iron pipes, coupled to 




"TaiNCH D.tM BOARP^/ '/ /// 

.-__z"mimcral wool blockJ ,y/ 

mow no WAID F"Pi f '.' 

_Z'.io'3TUD3riLLED 
"with iHAVINQb 



, 7b INCH D.in.B0AR03 

/ Z."MinERAL WOOL BLOCK 

/ jT CORK OR HAIR FELT 
/ /,' f- -WATELRPROOr PAPERS 
f]l //a INCH 5URr. B0ARD3 
AriLLCD WITH 3HAV1NG3 




Fig. 98. — Showing ..lethod of insulating the walls in the insulated ice house. Repro- 
duced from "Pracvjcal Cold Storage," by Madison Cooper. (Published by Nickerson and 
Collins Co., Chicajjo.) 

branch out between the cans. Spaces should be of such size as to 
accommodate the ordinary four-gallon " shot-gun " can (eight to 
nine inches in diameter and twenty inches liii>h) and the ordinary 



298 THE FARM MILK HOUSE 

ten-gallon shipping can (fourteen inches in diameter and twenty 
inches high). 

Two-inch wood makes a good tank. The extra expense in- 
curred in providing thick non-conducting walls is soon repaid by 
improved quality in the cream or a saving of ice. 

Milk and cream become sour and otherwise damaged through 
the action of certain bacteria. To grow at all rapidly, all bac- 
teria require a temperature of at least 55 degrees F. Cream 
keeps sweet more easily than milk, yet it will sour quickly if 
allowed to stand at a temperature of 55 degrees or warmer. To 
remain sweet for several days, even very clean cream must be 
held at a temperature of 50 degrees or lower. The ordinary 
kitchen ice chest seldom cools to a temperature lower than 55 
degrees and is more often at 60 degrees. To keep milk most 
efficiently the cans or bottles should be placed into water in 
which chunks of ice are floating (Fig. 131). 

Deep well water is usually cold enough in the northern 
states so that if caused to flow around the cans of cream the 
temperature of the whole may be very chca})ly held low enough, 
but when such an arrangement is impractical ice should be used 
in the tanks of water, in which case insulation of the tank is 
especially desirable. 

A sterilizer of some sort is essential in the production and 
delivery of good milk or cream. A steam jet through the drain 
board of tlie sink is ample for most farm dairy needs, but a gal- 
vanized iron oven, or a tight room, preferably made of cement, is 
a good investment, since in tliese ovens all of the dairy tools may 
be subjected to the purifying influence of live steam. 

LOCATION 

The milk room should not be located in the barn, but should 
be close to the door through which the milk can be most con- 
veniently brought (Fig. 94). It is essential, however, that good 
drainage be provided. It is desirable that the space between the 
barn and the milk house be sufficiently wide to permit a wagon to 
be easily driven between. The sidewalk leading from the bam 
door to the milk room door may be covered if desired. N'ot 
infrequently the entire space between the bam and the milk 



MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION 299 

house is provided with roof and concrete floor, thus making a 
convenient place for the loading of the milk wagon, providing 
such is used. Care should be taken that the milk house is not 
located at too great a distance from the barn unless it is towards 
the calf stable and hog house, since milk is such heavy stuff to 
carry. In the location of the building, as well as with the 
arrangement of the various features within, the object should be 
to economize steps (Fig. 95). 

MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION 

The material of which tlie milk house is to be made naturally 
will vary, but in most instances will probably be wood, though at 
present there is considerable use being made of the cement plas- 
ter, stucco finish. When not inconvenient the milk house should 
be made to harmonize in material and color with the other build- 
ings surrounding it. Cement blocks are also coming into use very 
largely and certainly have a place. Likewise, hollow clay blocks 
are beginning to be used to some extent and like the cement 
blocks have the advantage of permanency. In any case the floor 
of the milk house should be concrete, made with sufficient fall 
towards the drain to insure the quick removal of any water. 

The cement foundation walls should be comparatively high to 
keep the wood sill, if such be used, well above the constant moist- 
ure and the floor within should be made with round comers up to 
the top of the foundation wall, some eighteen inches to two feet 
above ground. Above this point, inside and over the ceiling, 
comparatively rich cement plaster may be used, but the disadvan- 
tage of this is that fine bits of sand will continue to fall on 
whatever machinery may be situated below. It is recommended, 
therefore, that the inner walls be made of wood and then painted 
heavily, first with a white filler, and then with a comparatively 
heavy white enamel paint. This provides a clean bright interior, 
permits shelves to be put up where necessary and saves the vari- 
ous machines and the cream below from being sprinkled with 
sand, as would be the case if common cement plaster were used. 

Since to work quickly and to take pride in it one must be able 
to see well, it is necessary tliat a reasonable amount of light be 
provided. There should be at least two windows in order to pro- 



300 THE FARM MILK HOUSE 

vide ventilation when needed. These should be well screened. 
It will be found convenient also in sumnier to have heavy roller 
shades or some other means of darkening- the room. This will 
assist in driving tlie flies out of the place and also in keeping the 
room cool. No particular attention need be paid to ventila- 
tion except in the largest of the plants indicated, \\here a venti- 
lating flue should be provided in wash room toi assist in drying 
the room as well as in giving workmen better air. 

In any milk house, especially in the little, inexpensive ones 
(Fig. 99), the foundation upon which the separator is set should 
extend into the ground below the frost line. This is accomplished 
by setting posts upon which the four legs of the separator are to 
stand and then cementing up around them. If this is not done 
the cement floor will heave with freezing sufficiently to throw 
the separator badly out of line and cause troubb. 

THE FARM ICE HOUSE 

When it is realized that cream, sweet and otherwise of good 
flavor, is worth from 10 to 20 per cent more than the same would 
be in a stale condition ; that under the present American f arin 
conditions one dollar invested in ice at the beginning of the 
season will return from five to ten dollars in increased value of 
the cream for each and every cow on the f. rm, the ice house will 
become more common. 

Water weighs (i2l/) pounds to the cubic :ot, ice 57.5 pounds. 
One ton of solid ice requires 35 cubic feet ' f space or, as ordi- 
narily well packed, about 50 eul)ic feet. ^ f the milk is sepa- 
rated immediately after being drawn and only the cream cooled, 
one-half ton of ice will suffice to cool the cream of one cow 
for one season of six months, or allowing for usual melting and 
other waste, one ton of ice occupying approximately 50 cubic 
feet of space will suffice for each cow. A herd of ten cows, 
therefore, would require 500,cubic feet of ice space or a building 
which will accommodate a mass of ice 8X^X8 feet, l^at- 
urally, if ice is to be used for household and other purposes, 
extra accommodation will need to be provided. 

The old sort of cheaply made ice house (Fig. 100), which 
consisted essentially of a bin of sawdust with a roof over it, is 



QUESTIONS 301 

wasteful of ice and an unpleasant place from whicli to remove 
ice. The heavy and disagreeable nature of the work of removing 
the ice after it is stored undoubtedly has much to do with the 
scarcity of ice houses even in our well-watered northern sections. 
]\Iost of this trouble may be easily avoided by the construction 
of the so-called insulated ice house. 




[•jp«»ef- -- 

Fig. 99.— Inexpensive milk house. 

The insulate( ice house is one in which the packing is put 
in the walls rather than upon the ice itself. The ice is packed 
clean and close to the walls where it will keep even more per- 
fectly than ween packed in the-ordinary sawdust fashion. Many 
of the best, moderate-sized creameries are now employing this 
system and it is certainly to be recommended to the larger class 
of farm dairies. The milk house and the ice house may be 
built under one roof which will reduce the labor of use to the 
minimum. See the plan already given of this type of combina- 
tion milk and ice house. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the essentials of a farm milk house? 

2. Where should it be located ? 

3. Of what mat^^rial should the lloor and lower walls he made? 

4. How much ice is required per season of six months per cow in the 

northern half of the United States? 

5. What is an "insulated" ice house? 

6. How may an insulated ice house and a milk house be economically 

combined? 

7. \\ hat (h)es one cubic foot of water weigh? 

8. What doesi one cubic foot of ice weigh? 

9. How many cubic feet will one ton of solid ice occupy? 

10. How many cubic feet should be allowed for each ton of ice to be used? 



302 



THE FARM MILK HOUSE 




r' 



jr»J»-i4'< 



t-IA'Qmr 



ilty orXjre^ Si J 



SAWDUST 



o 



Ice ISTbria 



I^.Jc.Dooj-t^ 



.SAWDUST x^'-»J» 1 



a 



PS 



«r' 



I' 



-Tio^, 



A^^^ 



t n ^^ 



McE Door. 



-li-o- 



ICE (©ToHS 






.3AWDU3T 



B1 



H H 



Fig. ICO. — Ice house, old style. Ice covered over and around with saw dust. Repro- 
duced from "Practical Cold Storage," by Madison Cooper. (Published by Nickereon and 
Collins Co., Chicago.) 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

To produce milk or bvitter fat for market most economically 
and profitably it is nearly, if not quite, as important that the 
grade of milk be known as it is to know the quantity yielded. 
Milk testing 7 per cent fat has nearly twice the food value of one 
testing 3 per cent fat, and likewise requires nearly twice as much 
feed to produce it (Chapter XXIII). There never was a time 
when the dairy farmers needed tO' feed scientifically more than at 
present, nor a time w^hen this could more easily be done. 

The dairy farmer should own a milk tester and use it, chiefly 
because of its aid in economical feeding. A second reason why 
the tester on the fann is needed is that by its means the un- 
profitable cows may more promptly and accurately be singled out 
for disposal. The man who sells to the city should be careful 
never to allow milk to go to market which is below the legal stand- 
ard in fat. Whether cream is shipped or drawn to local market 
the thoroughness of skimming done by the separator on the farm 
should, from time to time, be determined. It is also convenient 
frequently to use the hand tester to check the accuracy of the 
cream testing done in the city or in the local creamery. 

Easy to Learn. — The process of testing milk by the Babcock 
method is not difficult to learn, nor to perform. Any bright boy 
or girl of fifteen can readily learn to do very satisfactory work, 
especially if sho^\^l once or twice how to do a few of the more 
particular pieces of work. 

Does Not Take Long. — The total time required to make a 
single test of milk need not be more than fifteen minutes ; two 
samples can be tested nearly as quickly as one ; a dozen samples 
can be tested in half an hour. Testing milk makes a good " rainy 
day job " and may be worth more than the work which could be 
accomplished ordinarily during the same length of time. 

Equipment Needed and Cost. — A testing machine such as 
shown in figure 109 may be obtained complete with glassware 
for operation at from five to six dollars, but such machines are 

303 



304 MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

not to bo recomineiided. The reasons for not f avormg sucli are : 
(1) The small capacity prolongs the time required to do a 
moderate amount of work and greatly increases the likelihood 
that the testing of the herd will not often be undertaken. (2) 
The bottles are so thoroughly exposed to the air that unless the 
bottle pockets are filled with hot water the contents cool too 
rapidly to permit either of thorough testing or accurate reading. 
(3) Test bottles do occasionally break, and if such an accident 
should occur in an open machine the chances are great that it 
would at least cost the suit of clothes worn, and possibly cause 
greater damage. 

A machine like tliat shown in figure 101 with a capacity of 
eight to twelve bottles, enclosed with close-fitting cast-iron frame, 
costs only ten to twelve dollars, with glassware complete. It pro- 
tects the sample from being cooled in tlie air; protects the oper- 
ator from accident, and increases the likelihood of a good test. 

The glassware needed for the larger machine, constituting 
one set, will consist of a dozen whole milk test bottles^ two or 
more skim milk test bottles, and preferably, two cream test 
bottles, two pipettes, graduated to 17.6 cc. ; one pair needle- 
point dividers ; and a few ordinary dishes for the pouring of 
milk, and the handling of hot water. See figiires 101, 102, 103, 
and 104, for illustration of the various tools needed. 

Since glassware is liable to be broken and is not usually 
carried in stock in villages, it is highly desirable that there bo 
procured at least two pipettes and acid measures, and a reason- 
able stock of test bottles. Pipettes may be used to measure the 
acid, but it is hard on the throat on account of the acid fumes. 

Properties o£ Milk. — Milk is a mixture of water in which is 
dissolved a considerable quantity of milk sugar and a small 
quantity of albumen, with casein, which is the chief substance 
of which cheese is made, present in a fine suspension, and butter 
fat which is present in the form of an infinite number of small 
round globules. The composition of milk differs greatly between 
breeds and individuals of the same breed. 

Although the protein (casein and albumen) and the ash are 
far more important in the growing of calves, pigs and poultry 



MAKING THE TEST: DRAWING SAMPLE 305 

on tlie farm, the fat is commercially the most valuable. Fat is 
also the element in which there is the greatest variation. Being 
80 variable in amount and so valuable on the market, it becomes 
highly important that a test made shall be accurately done. 

Procuring the Sample. — If the milk of a single cow is to be 
tested she must be milked dry and the milk thoroughly stirred, 
preferably by pouring from one pail to another before a sample 
is taken. This is necessary because the last milk, or strippings, 
is anywhere from two to eight times as rich as the first milk 




Fig. 101. — Eight-bottle hand tester. Farm size. 

drawn. Merely drawing the milk into the bottle will not suffice 
for the securing of an accurate sample. 

If a can or vat of milk is to be tested it must be very thor- 
oughly stirred before the sample is taken. Fat will rise in five 
minutes sufficiently to show variation between the top and 
bottom of a pail or can of milk. So small an amount of milk 
as a single ten gallon canful will contain over 37,000 'cubic 
centimeters. In testing we use only 17.6 c.c, which is only one 
part in 2162 parts of the whole. Where so small a quantity is 
used to determine the value of so large a mass it is extremely 
important, indeed, that the small amount be carefully taken. 

Making the Test: Drawing Sample. — With test bottle 

placed conveniently and safely and with pipette near at hand, 

mix again the sample of milk by pouring from one cup or dish 

to another, taking care that the milk flows down the side of the 

20 



306 



MILK AND CREAM TESTING 





i 


^^^Pr 


' ' ' i 


► 1 • : 



Fig. 102. — Milk pipetics. :i li:is :i thiik rUmisi,- tip \vhirh will not enter a standard 8 per 
cent milk tested bottle, b is verj- much more serviceable. 

dish, rather than pouring into the center. This would intro- 
duce air bubbles and cause inaccuracy. Note the ring of cream 



MAKING THE TEST: DRAWING SAMPLE 



307 




Fig. 103. — Acid measures. a is preferable to b on account of the flaring base, whicli 
renders it less liable to tip over, and the lip out of which the acid is pouied is not so wide 
from side to side, thus easier to pour from without spilling. 

on the side of the container. This should be carefully rinsed off 
by the rotary motion of the milk. With pipette grasped firmly 
in the hand, as shown in figTire 105, with thumb and two fingers 
serving to hold the instrument ; little finger acting as guide, and 
fore finger to be used as a valve, draw tlie milk into the pipette, 



308 



MILK AND CREAM TESTING 




Fig. 104. — Milk test bottles, a is very much preferable to b. First, in having a 
slender neck, which will permit of accurate reading of the fat; second, in having sloping 
shoulders. Fat will lodge under the abrupt shoulder of b, and thus reduce the reading; 
third, the top of a is not flaring as b. A milk tested in duplicate in two bottles such as 
these would not read the same. 

nearly to the top, slip the fore finger over the top of the tnbe to 
prevent air entering. This serves to hold the milk in the 
pipette. Raise the charge and sample nearly to the level of the 



MAKING THE TEST: DRAWING SAMPLE 



309 



eyes and carefully release the foreliiiger, allowing air to enter 
until the milk has descended exactly to the scratch on the stem 
of the pipette. Again close tightly with the finger and transfer 
tlie measured quantity to the test bottle. If the stem of the 
pipette is sufficiently small, insert into the neck of the test bottle 
(Fig. 105Z;) ; if not, hold the bottle and pipette at an angle, as 
shown at figure 105. This is done to allow the milk to flow 




Fig. 105. — Filling milk test bottles. In a the bottle and pipette are being well 
handled where it is necessary to hold them while the pipette is being emptied, b shows a 
preferable method of emptying the pipette. When the lip of the pipette is slender enough 
to enter the neck of the bottle, a disc of rubber packing or cork niaj- be slipped on it and 
the pipette allowed to drain by itself. Two or three such pipettes may be used in rotation. 

down the bottom side of the neck of the bottle, while permitting 
air to escape on the upper side. The last drop of milk should be 
saved by blowing it into the test bottle. 

In testing a number of samples care should be taken to rinse 
■ the pipette once by drawing the milk of the next sample to be 
tested into the pipette and blowing it back ; otherwise the quan- 
tity of fat which sticks to the inside of the pipette goes from 



310 MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

one test over to the next. In going from a liigli testing sample 
to a low testing sample one may easily cause the reading of the 
low test sample to be one- or even two-tenths per cent too high. 

Adding Acid. — Carefully measure out acid (temperature 
55 to 65 degrees) into the acid measure. A quantity exactly 
to the scratch on the little cylinder will he required if the acid is 
the right strength and temperature, and the milk is not too 
warm. Warm acid or a warm sample increases the chemical 
action and will cause a burning of tlie sample unless checked. 
If either is too warm use slightly less acid. Pour the acid 
carefully down tlie side of the neck, allowing the heavy, half- 
sticky substance to flow under the milk rather than through it. 
If poured directly downward into the sample burning and un- 
reliable reading are almost certain to follow. 

Mixing Acid and Milk. — By one not especially familiar 
with the process this mixing should be done immediately after 
the acid has been added and by all means should be finished 
quickly when once started. Care should be taken not to shake 
the sample violently, nor in a perpendicular direction, since this 
would throw a mass of coagulated milk into the neck of the 
liottle where it would be forced out by the heat and lost, thus 
invalidating the whole sample. Shake the sample with an 
elliptical, rotary motion in such a way as to mix the contents 
of the bottle without throwing any of it into the neck. Observe 
the sample for an instant to note the color. Allow it to con- 
tinue the chemical action till a strong coffee color or deep chen-y 
red has been reached. If the acid is too strong or the ingredients 
at such a temperature that the mixture at this point begins to 
turn black, 2 or 3 c.c, a teaspoonful of lukewarm water should 
be added and then mixed. This checks the action of the acid 
and prevents charring. Care to get both milk and acid to the 
favorable temperature will be time well spent, for half the secret 
of making good tests is in getting the right temperatures. 

Whirling. — ^\^en all the samples to be tested at one time 
have been gotten ready in manner just described, the bottles are 
to be placed in the centrifugal machine, taking care to balance 
the load in all cases. Increase the speed gradually until the 



READING 311 

required force is being developed. Continue even, strong turn- 
ing for four minutes, when the machine should be permitted to 
stop of its own accord, or gently retarded bv hand. 

Adding Water. — Clean, soft water, just below the boiling 
point in temperature, is to be added, at this point in the process, 
to each bottle in amount sufficient only to bring the contents up 
to the bottom of the neck. This enables any curdy matter 
which may be floating on the heavy acid mixture to settle and 
not clog the neck. 

Second Whirling — ^Again the machine is to be strongly 
turned as before, for three minutes, and then gently stopped. 

Finish Adding Water. — At this point more hot water should 
be added, sufficient to bring the top of the fat column to within 
r.bout one inch of the top of the bottle, care being taken not to 
run it over. 

Third Whirling — Again the machine should be run two 
minutes strongly at full speed. This last whirling is particu- 
larly necessary in removing or squeezing the water out of the fat 
column in the neck of the bottle. 

Reading. — Test bottles are graduated to agree with the 
expansion of the fat when at a temperature of 130 to 140 degrees 
(Fig. 106). In hand machines there is a constant danger that 
the fat will be read at so low a temperature that it will not in- 
dicate as high a fat percentage as necessary to secure correct 
results. Furthermore, the fat column should be read from the 
bottom of the bottom meniscus to the extreme top as indicated 
in the figure. Although there is a depression, called the menis- 
cus, on the top of the fat column it has been shoAvn that the 
quantity of fat which would be required to fill this depression 
is equalled by the amount of fat which regularly remains in the 
bulb of a good test bottle, and never enters into the fat column. 
The amount of fat in the column is determined by spreading the 
dividers from the bottom to the extreme top of the fat column, 
then by placing the lower point at zero and noting the place 
indicated by the upper point. The distances between the fine 



312 



MILK AND CREAM TESTING 



division on the whole milk bottles have a value of 0.2 per cent 
(Fig. 111). 

Calculating the Fat in Milk. — Assuming that the milk to be 
tested had been thoroughly stirred before sampling and that the 
reading on the test bottle shows 4 per cent, how many pounds 
of fat are there in the total quantity ? It must be remembered 
that the words per cent or the sign % indicates hundredths, 
therefore in multiplying it is necessary to multiply the per- 
centage figure by one hundred, which will make 4.0 per cent read 




Fig. 106. — The control of temperatures is half the battle in Babcock milk testing. 
With some makes of testers a common lamp may be used to keep the samples warm. Excel- 
lent work can be done even in a cold room with such an attachment. 

0.04, and likewise a reading of 3.7 per cent would be written 
0.037. 

If the cow has yielded 20 pounds of milk which tests 4 per 
cent fat, there are in that quantity of milk, then, 20 times 0.04, 
which equals 0.8 pound of fat. Likewise, 40 pounds testing 
3 per cent fat contains 1.2 pounds of fat (40 times 0.03 equals 
1.2) ; and 20 pounds of milk testing 6 per cent fat also has in it 
1.2 pounds of fat (20 times 0.06 equals 1.2). 

A ten-gallon can of milk weighs net about 85 pounds. If it 



COMPOSITE SAMPLES 313 

tests 3.7 per cent the quantity of fat contained would be equal to 
85 (pounds of milk) times 0.037 (test) equals 3.145 pounds 
of fat. 

Composite Samples. — A composite sample is one made up 
of a number of smaller samples. If a small quantity of the 
milk yielded by a cow morning and nigiit for a week be added to 
a glass jar and adequately preserved, a single testing of the 
composite sample at the end of the week will indicate the aver- 
age quality of milk produced by that cow throughout the week, 
provided the quantity of sample taken is in proportion to the 
amount of milk given. This system is employed in whole milk 
creameries where the milk delivered by each farmer is thoroughly 
stirred and a small portion added to the test sample, which is held 
for a period of from one to two weeks, and then tested. This 
method is convenient and economical of time, but must be oper- 
ated carefully or expensive errors may be made. 

A glass bottle, with large ground-glass stopper (Fig. 107) is 
by far the most desirable sort of container for the sample. The 
two points to be guarded in the holding of the sample are: First, 
the prevention of evaporation and, second, the prevention of the 
loss of fat due to its sticking -in the crevices of a rough cover. 
A sample kept even half a day in an open dish like a tea cup is 
utterly worthless as a means of determining the fat content of 
the milk produced or delivered, since so large a quantity of 
water would have evaporated that the remaining portion would 
be too rich in fat. For the same reason, but to a less degree, a 
bottle with a large cork stopper is not to be recommended, some 
water would escape through and some fat would cling to -the 
cork. Mason fruit jars have often been used. These prevent 
evaporation, but cause more or less loss of fat about the top. For 
ordinary farm use they probably will serve as well as anything 
to be found. In the earlier days of creamery work, and to 
some extent up to the present, pint milk bottles with metal caps 
which clamp more or less tightly were employed. It has been 
shown by trial that the amount of water which will evaporate 
from such a lid is very appreciable, indeed, and that many cream- 
eries are paying for more fat than they actually receive on this 
account. This reduces the percentage over-run on the part of the 



314 MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

butter maker and occasionally encourages liim to record a test 
lower than the actual reading, to recover in the operation. 

If a cow is being tested and she yields 30 pounds of milk 
for thirty days, she has produced 900 pounds of milk. If this 
is shown to test 3.9 per cent fat, she will then be given credit 
with having produced 35.1 pounds of fat, whereas a glass- 
stoppered bottle which would prevent evaporation of water might 
show her true test to have been 3.6 per cent fat. This would 
credit her with having produced only 32.3 pounds of butter fat, 
or a difference of 2.8 pounds of fat. If the fat is figured as 
worth 30 cents per pound the cow has been given credit with hav- 




FiG. 107. — Composite milk sample bottles. Evaporation of moisture must be prevented. 
The bottle at the right is preferable to the fruit jar. 

ing produced 8-1 cents' worth of })roduct in one month more than 
she is entitled to. At tliis rate each cow in the herd would have 
been given credit during the year with having produced from 
$5 to $10 Avorth of prodiict more than was rightly her due. The 
money .value difference between a true test and one made too 
high by the evaporation of water from the sample is better shown 
in the case of the whole milk creameries. If a farmer have 
twelve cows averaging 25 pounds of milk each, or 300 pounds 
of milk per day, they will in fifteen days produce 4500 pounds 
of milk. With the fat percentage in error as above mentioned, 
the farmer will be given credit for having delivered 13.5 pounds 
of fat in the 15 days, more than he had actually delivered. If 



PRESERVATIVES FOR SAMPLES 315 

the fat is worth 30 cents a j^ouud it would amount to $4.05, or 
approximately $8 a month. If there are 75 such patrons, $600 
per month may easily have been paid out to the farmers for milk 
fat which was never delivered. This is one reason why some 
creameries have great difficulty in maintaining an adequate or 
even reasonable over-run. The sample must not only have been 
tliorougiily taken, ibut also have been protected from evaporation 
of water or mechanical loss of fat in order to be of exact value. 

Preservatives for Samples.- — In order that it shall not be 
necessary to test the milk inunediately nor to test every milking, 
preservatives have been brought into use for the purpose of keep- 
ing the milk sweet. All milk preservatives are poisonous, other- 
wise they would not destroy the bacteria and preserve the milk. 
The best preserving substance to use is corrosive sublimate, made 
up in tablet form, with the addition of coloring matter. The 
preservative itself is colorless. The coloring matter is added to 
insure safety. Tablets of this sort may be procured from any of 
the dealers in creamery supplies. 

Potassium bichromate in powdered form is absolutely not 
to be recommended for general use.' It unites with and increases 
the strength and action of the acid and since it is extremely 
difficult to measure the powder with sufficient accuracy to get 
exactly the same quantity into each sample bottle, the tester will 
later be unable to know how much acid to add to secure the 
desired effect. This substance is now jjut up in tablet form, 
which increases the ease with which it may be used and makes of 
it a fairly satisfactory preservative. Care must be exercised, 
however, in the addition of the acid to the sample that a quantity 
less than usual is added, and that there is near at hand some 
warm water to be added if necessary to check the burning process. 

Formaldehyde is the safest of all the preservatives to use, 
since it gives off a violent and disagreeable odor, and therefore is 
not likely to be consumed, and not being a violent poison would 
not likely cause disastrous results if it were accidentally fed 
to pigs or calves. The chief objection to its use is tlie fact that 
it seems to toughen the casein in the milk and render the thor- 
ough digestion by the acid difficult. It is necessary to use more 



316 MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

acid and to shake more thoroughly when this preservative is used. 

In all cases, regardless of what preservative has been used, 
the operator should use the color of his test as his guide and not 
merely the usual amount of acid. 

Sampling Sour Milk. — Xot infrequently milk will have be- 
come sour and thick before the operator has had opportunity to 
make a fat determination. To reduce such a mas« to a fluid 
requires the presence of some alkali to neutralize the acid. For 
this purpose ammonia is occasionally used, though a few grains 
of concentrated lye dissolved in a very small quantity of water 
may be employed without harm. Various washing powders 
such as sal soda may also be used. These strong alkalies neu- 
tralize the acid and render it easy for the whole curd mass to be 
shaken into a thoroughly fluid condition. Care must be taken, 
however, in shaking not to churn the sample, since, under these 
conditions the fat particles will assemble into masses very easily. 
The acid should be added slowly and cautiously to any sample 
which has been neutralized, otherwise the sample may foam 
badly and even boil out on the hand. It is advisable also to make 
the test, at least in duplicate, to insure accuracy. 

Sampling Churned Milk. — Occasionally a sample of milk 
will be sent by mail and upon arrival found to have been churned 
during transit. To obtain a correct sample of such the entire 
quantity should be heated to 110 degrees and held until the fat 
has melted, when again the entire amount should be violently 
shaken sutflciently long to form an enmlsion of all the ingredients 
present. The fat particles, however, will still be very large 
compared to their size in the original condition, and will there- 
fore rise quickly. The test sample may preferably be pipetted 
out of the stream while pouring the emulsified sample from one 
dish to another. To be reasonably sure that a correct test has 
been made at least four samples should be run, the entire 
quantity being kept warm and shaken between each sampling. 
If, after such treatment, the four samples show a close agreement 
the average may be taken as the probable true test of the sample. 

Sampling Frozen Milk. — When milk freezes the watery 
portion crystallizes into spines and bars of ice, with a tendency 



NECESSITY FOR WEIGHING CREAM 317 

to throw down all substances in suspension. An application 
of this princi})le is seen in the freezing of a shallow muddy pond 
or lake. The ice will be far cleaner than the water was before 
the freezing- started. The dirt will have concentrated down- 
ward. When a quantity of milk freezes the solid particles are 
concentrated largely into the center, the outer portion being 
more largely the water part of the milk. The effect of such is 
the partial formation of the curd into flakes. These floating 
particles interfere considerably with the taking of an accurate 
sample. To obtain a true sample it may even be necessary to 
weigh out 18 grams of the thoroughly warmed and poured sample 
into the test bottle rather than to measure it with a pipette. 

Testing Cream: Sampling (Figs. 108 and 109). — Cream 
varies so greatly in fat content and in its fluid properties and 
mixes with such difficulty compared with milk that much greater 
care is required to be exercised in obtaining an accurate sample, 
Cream will rise on cream to such an extent that the top of a can 
may test 35 per cent fat while the bottom contains only 10 or 
even 5 per cent fat. In order to obtain a sample which is at all 
adequate in determining its value, it is essential that the cream 
be either thoroughly stirred from the bottom by means of a 
stirring device consisting of an iron rod fitted with a strong disc 
at the lower end and bv means of which an upward rotary motion 
in the cream can be effected ; or by pouring the cream several 
times from one can to another. When the cream is thoroughly 
mixed, a quantity of two to three ounces may be transferred to 
the sample bottle for future work. 

Composite Samples, — Altliough sufficiently accurate work 
may readily be done from composite samples of milk the system 
is not to be recommended for cream. This is chiefly due to the 
great variation in fat content of the cream, and also to the vary- 
ing amount which is usually taken to market. 

Necessity for Weighing Cream. — The Babcock test is based 
upon tlie use of eighteen grams of sample or some knov/n fraction 
thereof. Since butter fat weighs only about 87 per cent as much 
as milk serum and since the fat content of cream will vary all 
the way from 12 to 50 per cent it is evident that with the various 



318 



MILK AND CREAM TESTING 



grades different volumes of cream would be required to weigh 
18 grams. A pipette graduated to carry 17,G c.c. will carry 18 
grams of ordinary milk, but tbe cream wbicli would be contained 




Fig. 108. — Cream test bottles, a is preferable to b in three points. The narrower 
neck permits more accurate reading of the fat, the neck is straight, i.e., not flaring toward 
the top, and the shoulders are more sloping. 

in tbat volume would weigh only 15 to 16.5 grams, depending 
on its richness. It is therefore essential that cream be weighed 
into the test bottles and not measured as in the case of whole 
and skim milk. 



WEIGHING OUT SAMPLES 



319 



Another reason why it is essential to weigh cream is the 
presence in the cream of larger or smaller quantities of gas. 
l^aturally any cream which has been poured or stirred until it 
contains a considerable amount of air or other* gas will occupy 
more volume for its weight than it would if it had not been so 
treated. 

The kind of scales to be recommended will vary with the 
volume of work to be done. The finely adjusted Torsion balance 
designed to accommodate two to four bottles at a time is exceed- 
ingly sensitive and valuable when high-class work is to be done. 

Weighing Out Samples. — It is sometimes necessary to warm 
the bottle of cream to make the cream flow more readily. A 




Fig. 109. — An inexpensive tester, yet one not to recommend for general farm use. 
The samples cool too quickly in this and if a bottle were to break, the acid would be liable 
to do injury. 

quantity of cream may then be drawn into the pipette and 
allowed to flow into the test bottle on the scale, care being taken 
that a quantity be added sufficient only to bring about an exact 
balance. In doing this, care should also be taken that no drop of 
cream falls upon the outside of the bottle or upon the platform 
of the scale. When the sample has been weighed out it may 
be set aside to be tested at any future time. The water only can 
evaporate. It is best, however, to run out the samples while they 
are still fresh. 



320 MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

Instead of using 18 grams as indicated, nearly, if not quite, 
as accurate work can be done by adding only 9 grams of sample 
and then by doubling the reading secured. This is economical 
of both cream and acid. 

Adding Acid. — If 18 gi-ams of cream are taken as sample 
somewhat less than the usual measure of acid will be required. 
If a 9-gram sample of cream is taken then less than half the 
usual measure of acid will be needed. This is due to the fact 
that so much of the sample is fat that there is not as much 
solids to be dissolved as in the case of whole milk. The test 
bottle should be canted so that the acid may flow down the side 
of the neck as in the case of milk. Likewise it is preferable to 
mix them thoroughly immediately upon the addition of the acid. 
At this point it is necessary also to watch carefully the color of 
tlie sample (Fig. 110). The reddish color soon changes to a 
dark cherry-red, and may assume almost a black hue. The 
sample must not be permitted to become fully black, for if this 
has taken place considerable charring has been caused. To 
prevent burning at this point, about half a teaspoonful of luke- 
warm water should be added and shaken into the sample. This 
small amount of water " kills '' the acid. 

First Whirling. — As in the case of milk the test bottles 
should be so placed in the machine as to balance. They are 
then turned rapidly according to the size of the machine (Fig. 
109), for fully five minutes, when the machine is gently stopped 
or allowed to come to rest of its own accord. 

Adding Water. — Clean, soft water at a temperature of about 
190 or 200 degrees may now be added. This is done simply 
for the purpose of bringing the fat up into the neck of the bottle 
where it can be read. In case of rich cream it may be necessary 
to fill the bottle nearly to the top, otherwise, leaving a safety 
space of about an inch unfilled. A single filling is found to be 
sufiicient in the case of cream, since the work cannot be carried 
on with the same degree of accuracy as with milk in any case. 

Second Whirling. — This second whirling should be done 
strongly for fully four minutes to insure the ascension of all 



kmi 



n 




Fig. 110— a, CREAM TEST, AND B, MILK TEST. PERFECT COLOR FOR 
PERFECT WORK. 



TRUE AVERAGE TEST OF CREAM 321 

the fat into the iieck, and also to insure separating the water 
from the column of fat. 

The Use of a " Reader." — It will he noted, as shown in 
figure 110, that the depression or concave portion on the top of 
the fat cohnnii, in the case of cream, amounts to considerable. 
The quantity of fat which would he necessary to fill up this 
concave area, or meniscus, is altogether greater than the amount 
of fat which remains in the bulb of the bottle; consequently 
allowance must be made for the depression. Or better still, 
some substance like aniyl alcohol, colored red with some dye, or a 
lightweight machine oil, as glymol, may be added to flatten the 
surface. It has been the experience of the writer that the oil 
obtainable varies considerably in weight and is less reliable than 
the alcohol. The substance usually sold by creamery supply 
companies is mostly amyl alcohol colored with a dye. 

Reading the Sample. — The reading is done the same as in 
the case of the milk. It is a little more important, however, that 
a temperature of at least 130 to 140 degrees be maintained, 
since the fat column is so long. The reading should be made 
from the extreme bottom to the flat surface shown between the 
red reader and the fat, or in the case no '' reader " is used tire 
upper part of the dividers should be made to divide the distance 
occupied by the meniscus about equally (Fig. 111). 

It is impossible to test cream to the same point of accuracy 
as that reached in the case of milk. This is due to the wide neck 
in the bottle which it is necessary to use. Therefore it is found 
that a variation of one-half per cent in duplicate samples of 
sour cream is not at all uncommon and would almost be expected. 

Calculating the Fat in Cream. — A ten-gallon can will hold 
about 84 pounds of ordinary cream. If this is shown to test 34.5 
per cent, the quantity of fat in the can is found by multiplying 
84 by 0.345 ; thus 84 times 0.345 equals 28.98 pounds of fat. An 
eight-gallon can will hold about (u pounds of ordinary cream. 
If the test shows this to contain say 26.5 per cent fat there will 
be contained in it a quantity of fat found by multiplying 64 by 
0.265, or 17.80 pounds of fat. 

True Average Test of Cream. — The chief reason why it is 
21 



322 



MILK AND CREAM TESTING 



difficult and "unsatisfactory to try to carry on composite samples 
of cream for the purpose of knowing the pounds of fat delivered, 
by means of a single test, is because the test of the several lots 
varies so greatly that unless a sample be taken in exact propor- 
tion to the quantity of cream delivered, or received, the effect of 
this method of delivery upon the sample will be out of propor- 
tion. To illustrate, suppose there be delivered to the factory, 
four batches of cream as follows : 



A. 
c- 



a.. 



■cf 



111. — In milk testing the fat should be read from a to b, not to c nor to d, but 
in cream from a. to h. 

Lb. Fat 

6.0 

45.0 

28.0 

48.4 



Lb. Cream 


Test 


20 


30 


180 


25 


70 


40 


220 


22 



490 117 127.4 

The false average test, found liy dividing 117 by 4, is 29.25 jjer cent. 

The average test, found by dividing 117 by 4, is 29.25 per 
cent. There will have been delivered 490 pounds- of cream. 
The quantity of fat delivered may readily be found by multiply- 
ing the pounds of cream by the test in each and every case, and 
by adding the quantities of fat. Thus we see in this case 127.4 
pounds of fat were delivered. If a composite sample had been 
made of these four lots of cream and the quantity of cream taken 
for the sample had been the same in each case the test of the 



TRUE AVERAGE TEST OF CREAM 323 

composite sample would show the same as the direct average of 
these four, or 29.25 per cent. That this test is too high is readily 
seen when we divide the actual quantity of fat 127.4 by the 
quantity of cream, 490. Performing this we see that the true 
average test, instead of being 29.25 per cent is only 26 per cent. 
The direct or false average, therefore, is 3.25 per cent too high. 
An error of this magnitude operating upon 490 pounds of cream 
throws an error of 15.925 pounds of fat. If fat is being bought 
at the rate of 30 cents per pound an over-payment of $4.78 has 
occurred (490 times 0.0325 equals 15.925; 15.925 times 30 
equals $4.78). It is evident, therefore, that any butter maJ^er 
who makes composite samples of cream delivered by his patrons is 
almost certain to make errors of this sort. A\'Tiile in the long 
run and on the various patrons there may be a balance or com- 
pensation it certainly is an inaccurate and unreliable method of 
computation. Likewise, a farmer, in endeavoring to check up 
the accuracy and honesty of the creamery operatives, is more 
likely than not to make an error of this kind, either one way or 
the other, if he tries to make composite tests. Each and every 
can or shipment of cream should be weighed, sampled, and tested 
by itself. It should be remarked in passing that this is the 
practice with the larger and better-conducted creamery plants. 

Testing Skim Milk. — Skim milk is tested in the same man- 
ner as whole milk, except that the skim milk bottle is used. 
The essential difference between the skim milk bottle and 
the whole milk bottle is in the size of the tube or bore of the 
neck. At present most skim milk bottles are so made that the 
entire length of the graduated scale equals one-fourth of one 
per cent (0.25 per cent), and each of the five grand divisions 
of the scale has a value of five one-hundredths per cent (0.05 
per cent). In testing skim milk care must be taken to make 
sure that no drop of water or other plug remains in the 
graduated neck at the time of pouring the milk, or the acid, into 
the bottle. A drop of water lodged in the neck, very frequently, 
indeed will cause the air to bubble back against the acid or milk 
while being poured down the large neck, causing same to spill. 
If any portion of the sample is wasted, the whole is lost. 



324 MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

Skim milk lias more solids not fat, for the acid to dig'est, thus 
about 20 c.c. acid are needed for 17. G c.c. of skim milk. A little 
greater care should also be taken in mixing the acid with the 
milk. All other steps are the same as with whole milk. 

Ordinary gravity skim milk usually tests at least 0.1 percent 
and frequently 0.50 per cent. The centrifugal cream separator, 
properly adjusted, will leave in the skim milk a quantity of fat 
so small as to read 0.02 per cent or less. 

If 100 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent fat is run through 
a separator there will ordinarily be produced 20 pounds of 20 
per cent cream. This leaves 80 pounds of skim milk. If this is 
found to contain 0.03 per cent fat there will remain in the 80 
pounds only 0.024 pound of fat (SO times 0.0003 equals 0.024). 
There is at present no excuse for a fat loss represented by 
even so small amount as 0.05 per cent. 

Testing Buttermilk. — So far as the testing of buttermilk is 
conceriK'd it is usually very simple, indeed, provided an accurate 
sample can be taken. The difficulty in getting a samjjle is experi- 
enced because the grains of butter are so large that to include one 
in the sample will manifestly give altogether too high a reading, 
while to avoid all will yield a fat reading evidently too low. 

If the cream has been properly ripened and has been churned 
cold there will usually be an invisible fat loss of about 0.05 per 
cent, though 0.1 per cent is not as uncommon as it should be. It 
is not always easy to know in advance whether to put the"sampl(; 
into a skim milk bottle or into a whole milk bottle. jS^ot infre- 
quently one of each is used in order that one or the other shall 
be readable. 

Testing Whey. — AVhey obtained in the making of cheese con- 
tains little more than one-half of the solid matter contained in 
skim milk of the kind which is attacked by the acid. The sugar 
and the albumen only remain in appreciable amounts. Since 
the work to be done by the test acid is only aboilt half as great as 
in the case of whole milk the quantity of acid to be used in testing 
is only about one-half as great. 

Bottles are on the market nuide expressly for the testing of 
whey. They differ from the ordinary whole milk bottle only in 
having a bulb sufficiently large to contain two charges of whey 



THE CENTRIFUGE: KIND 325 

and one of acid. The graduated neck is also only about half as 
long as in the case of whole milk. The fat test obtained is then 
divided by two, since twice the 18 grains of sample had been 
taken. Whey may be tested, however, in the ordinary whole 
milk bottles with fair accuracy by using 17. G c.c. of sample and 
about one-half the usual charge of acid. 

Some fat is always lost in cheese making, that is, lost to the 
cheese. At present this is frequently recovered by the separa- 
tion of the whey by means of a cream separator, modified for 
the purpose. The fat then is made up into " whey butter." 
Whey should not test more than one^fourth of one per cent (0.25 
per cent), though 0.3 per cent is a rather more common loss. 

Testing Cheese — -Ordinary cheese may be tested for fat by 
means of the Babcock method. This is best accomplished by secur- 
ing a representative sample of the cheese in question by trim- 
ming off the outside, dryer portion, using only the uniformly 
moist center. This may then be cut into fine bits, on paper, and 
nine grams weighed out as in cream testing. To the bottle con- 
taining tlie crumbs of cheese about six c.c. of hot water should be 
added. The whole mass is then stirred or shaken until warmed 
throughout and softened. Ordinary testing acid is then added, 
little by little, mixing and watching for color until the right 
shade has been reached. A little more lukewarm water should 
then be added to check further charring. The sample then is 
run out the same as cream or milk. The amount of fat will be 
found by doubling the reading obtained, since only nine, instead 
of eighteen grams of sample were used. 

The Centrifuge: Kind. — There are several milk-testing 
machines on the market that have proven themselves thoroughly 
serviceable. Aside from favoring the heavier and enclosed 
machine already indicated the writer has no particular choice, 
provided the machine is to be used in a warm room. If, how- 
ever, the testing outfit is to be placed in the ordinary milk room 
where the air is often cold, a machine provided with an opening 
below, through w^iich or into which the chimney of a small kero- 
sene lamp can be inserted is preferable to the machine tightly 
closed below. It is essential that the samples be kept thoroughly 
warm, even hot, not only at the time of reading the fat, but dur- 



326 MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

ing the whirling process. Hot water in the machine is a 
nuisance and does very little good. On the other hand, a little 
kerosene stove arranged under the tester as shown in figure 106, 
has been found to give excellent results, regardless of the tem- 
perature of the work-room. 

Size. — A tester which will hold at least 8 bottles, or in case 
of a herd of 15 or 20 cows, 12 bottles will be found preferable 
to anything smaller. The slight increase in cost will be readily 
made up by the increased rate with which the work is done. 

Speed. — The number of revolutions required to produce the 
required force in the machine varies with its diameter. The 
following table shows the number of revolutions needed for 
machines when the revolving portion has the diameter indicated.^ 

Diameter of Wheel No. revolutions per minute 

10 1074 

12 980 

14 909 

16 848 

18 800 

20 759 

22 724 

24 693 

Longer turning with lower speed will not produce the effect 
of high speed. It will neither force the small fat globules out 
of the bulb of the test bottle into the neck, nor will it squeeze the 
water out of the fat, back into the lower portion of the bottle as 
will be done with high speed. It is essential, therefore, that the 
machines be placed on a thoroughly sound foundation and set 
level and run at full speed. 

Temperature. — So necessary is it to have a reasonably warm 
tejmperature in the machine that the power or factory-size 
machines are usually provided with a direct steam inlet. Samples 
may then be warmed before or during the whirling and kept hot 
until the fat percentages have been read. With the hand machine 
the same effect can be obtained by having a lamp placed as 
previously described (Fig. 106). 

Care of the Machine — It may be almost useless to state that 

* Testing Milk and its Products, Farrington and Woll. 



TO DETERMINE STRENGTH 327 

this machine, like any other, requires being kept well oiled. Too 
liberal oiling while in motion, however, may cause particles of 
fat to be thrown into the tops of the test bottles, thus introducing 
a very appreciable error. 

In case of an accident causing acid to be spilled inside of the 
iron frame, it is very unwise indeed, to allow it to remain. All 
broken glass and every vestige of acid should be cleaned out 
immediately and thoroughly, othei-^vise the acid will continue 
slowly to act upon the iron, releasing fine dust-like particles 
very disagreeable to breathe. The machine also, it may be known, 
will be rusted or corroded out rapidly under such conditions. 

Acid : Kind. — The acid used in the Babcock test is the com- 
mercial sulfuric. The commercial quality is much cheaper in- 
deed, than the pure, yet its impurities do not introduce any error 
in tlie test. In case it becomes necessary to procure testing acid 
from, or through a drug store, it is wise to insist, not only on 
sulfuric acid, but for the commercial grade. Pure acid, in 
addition to being far more expensive than is needed, is altogether 
too strong to be used with comfort or safety. 

Strength of Acid. — Commercial sulfuric acid has a specific 
gravity of about 1.82, or in other words, is 1.82 times as heavy 
as water. Pure acid is heavier. The commercial grade is often 
spoken of as 90 per cent strength. Thus in purchasing, the 
buyer has amply described the article wanted by calling for com- 
mercial sulfuric, specific gravity 1.82 or 90 per cent strength. 

To Determine Strength. — The commercial acid is compara- 
tively cheap and varies in strength, not greatly, but sufficient to 
interfere with the test made unless a little more or less of the 
acid is used, according as it is needed. There are simple devices 
on the market for the purpose of determining the strength of the 
acid but these are easily broken, and after all, no more reliable 
than a simple test or trial of the acid in question would be. To 
test a new quantity of acid, thoroughly mix a sample of sweet 
milk and load into four bottles and number them. Into bottle 
No. 1 add three-quarters of the usual quantity of acid ; into bot- 
tle ISTo. 2, seven-eighths ; into bottle No. 3, the usual or ordinary- 
quantity as indicated by the acid measure, and into bottle No. 4, 
a quantity of acid slightly greater than the amount indicated 



328 MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

with the measure. When these have been run out in the usual 
manner the quantity of acid used in the test showing up best, 
will be nearlj, if not quite, the quantity thereafter to be used 
with that particular shipment of acid. 

Care of Acid. — Sulfuric acid has a very great affinity for 
water. If the bottle is left uncorked, moisture will be taken in 
from the air continually and far more rapidly than one would 
suspect. Such diluted acid may even have lost its strength to such 
an extent as to become useless in testing. A rul)ber plug should 
be used in preference to one made of cork, though one made 
of glass is best. If the ordinary cork is used for even a few 
days, particles of charred substance will be found floating in the 
acid and will introduce slight, annoying errors in the test made. 
Xeither light, nor heat, nor cold aifects the acid, provided it is not 
used when too hot nor too cold. 

Temperature to Use — Hot or warm acid is far more active 
than the same when cool. Many samples of milk have been 
charred from using acid which had stood around the dairy room 
in summer and used without first being cooled. For best results 
the milk and the acid should not have a temperature much below 
55 nor above 65 degreesi F. It is often desirable, therefore, to 
keep the acid in the basement ice chest, or to set into cold water 
for a time before using. 

Water. — If hard water, that is water containing a consider- 
able quantity of lime, is used there is great likelihood indeed, 
that chemical reaction following will cause a moss-like mass to be 
formed in the neck of the bottle through which fat will be dis- 
tributed. It will be manifestly incorrect to include all of the 
foreign substance as fat, yet to exclude all of it introduces a 
yet greater error. 

Soft water, that is, rain water or snow water, or better yet, 
condensed steam will be found most desirable. In case it is 
impossible to obtain such soft water, ordinary hard water may be 
treated in such a way as to purify it and yet not introduce an 
error in the test. This is best done by adding a small quantity 
of hydrochloric acid to the water. If no hydrochloric acid is 
obtainable ordinary sulfuric or testing acid may be used 
instead. One acid measure of acid mixed with half a pint of 



CLEANING GLASSWARE 329 

water has been found ample to prevent the disturbance due to 
lime in the water used. 

Hot water is necessary to be added to the test bottles. If it 
is impossible, or exceedingly difficult to get good hot water where 
needed, any water may be made hot by the addition of a quantity 
of testing acid equal to about one-quarter of the volume of water 
used. The acid will make the water hot, yet will not produce 
any undesirable effects in the test. The writer has often em- 
ployed this method of securing purified hot water where ordi- 
nary hot water could not be obtained. 

It is necessary too, for best work, that the water be clean of 
the ordinary organic impurities, such as would be introduced by 
using an uncleiined pipette for the addition of the water to the 
test. Milky water thus added produces a dull gray cloud below 
or through the fat, and to that extent renders the read- 
ing unreliable. 

Cleaning Glassware. — The glassware used in testing is not 
difficult to clean if the washing is done at once, while everything 
is fresh, but if the milk is allowed to become dry in the pipette, or 
the residue of the test has been allowed to harden in the test bot- 
tle the cleaning process will be many times more difficult. 

The first and most important step in the cleaning of the bot- 
tles is to empty them while they are still hot and to shake the con- 
tents vigorouslj^ so that the gray-white sediment noticeable in the 
bottom of the bottle v/ill be thoroughly removed. The sediment 
referred to is the milk -ash. It is insoluble in water and if per- 
mitted to dry and harden in . the bottom will be difficult to 
remove, but may very easily be shaken out while the sample is 
fresh. xVll the bottles to be washed should then be rinsed, set up- 
right and into them sprinkled a quantity of strong washing pow- 
der. Water as hot as the hands can bear should then be intro- 
duced and the neck cleaned inside and out by means of a cyl- 
indrical bottle brush made for the purpose. After being thus 
cleaned all the glassware should be rinsed well with hot water to 
give the glass a gloss and a clean feel. 

Ordinary soap should not be used in the cleaning of such 
glassware, as the chemical action which takes place with the 
sulfuric acid and the ingredients of the soap is such as to 



330 MILK AND CREAM TESTING 

form a sticky resinous deposit on the bottles whicli is hard 
to remove. 

ERRORS TO AVOID IN TESTING 

The following are the chief causes of inaccuracy : 

1. Gross sample not a true one, because 

(a) Cream sour and clotted. 

(b) Cream dried on surface. 

(c) Cream partly churned. 

(d) Cream good, but not well mixed before sampling. 

2. Test bdttle sample not correct because 

(a) Cream measured instead of weighed. (18 grams required.) 

(b) Cream weighed with inaccurate scales. (Keep all bearings free 
from rust and gum.) 

(c) Of slovenly work in weighing. 

3. Aoid mistakes — 

(a) Too much or too strong acid (burns fat). 

(b) Too little or too weak acid (leaves white curd under the fat). 

(c) Acid too warm (burns fat: (iO to 05 degrees F. works best). 

(d) Acid poured through cream (burns in clots). 

(e) Acid not well mixed when shaking is commenced (burns in clots) . 
(Four or five c.c. lukewarm water will check acid action). 

4. Mistakes in whirling. 

(a) Speed too slow. (Fails to secure all the fat or to diy the fat.) 

(b) Not turned long enough (5 or 6 minutes necessary). 

(c) Bottles too cool while turning (fat cannot rise; should be 180 to 
200 degrees F.). 

5. Mistakes in adding water — 

(a) Water too cool (190 to 200 degrees F. right). 

(b) Water dirty (causes gray cloud below fat). 

(c) Water hard (the lime in hard water often causes unreliable 
results ; use rain water or condensed steam ) . 

6. Mistakes in reading fat — 

(a) Reading too hot (fat expanded; 130 to 140 degrees F. right). 

(b) Reading too cold (fat contracted, not volume enough). 

(c) Upper surface of fat not leveled (a few drops of amylic alcohol 
on top of fat makes a flat surface of the concave one. This is 
used on cream only ) . 

7. Inaccurate graduation of test bottles — 

(a) Every bottle should have been tested. 

When so small a quantity of cream has to represent so large a 
quantity, it is exceedingly important that every step in the 
process be performed with the utmost care. 



QUESTIONS 331 

Strength of Sulfuric Acid. — The strength of acid holds a 
definite relation to its specific gravity, as shown below : 

Sp. gr. Per cent strength 

1.841 97 

1.840 96 

1.8^9 95 

1.837 94 

1.834 93 

1.830 92 

1.825 91 

1.820 90 

1.815 89 

1.808 88 

QUESTIONS 

1. When, where and by whom was the Babcock test invented? 

2. Why do we use a 17.6 e.c. pipette for testing milk? 

3. What is the specific gravity of normal milk? 

4. What is the specific gravity of normal cream? 

5. What is the specific gravity of butter fat ? 

6. Give the name, specific gravity, and strength of the acid used in testing. 

7. How much acid should be used when testing milk? 

8. Should a milk sample be mixed at once after adding acid? 

9. What should be the temperature of milk for testing? 

10. Should the test bottles be kept 'warm while in the tester? 

11. How should a milk test be read? 

12. Describe the appearance of a perfect test. 

13. Wherein and why does the testing of cream differ from that of milk? 

14. How would a cream test be read? Why? 

15. How would you test skim milk? 

16. How much acid would you use in testing skim milk? 

17. How would you test whey? 

18. How would you test buttermilk? 

19. How would you test cheese? 

20. How would you test sour milk? 

21. What would you do if the water were very hard? 

2'2. How would you determine whether the acid was of proper strength? 

23. Would chemically pure acid give better results? 

24. Would it change the reading of a test to run the tester too fast? 

25. What style of test bottle is best for testing milk? 

26. What color should the tests be just before they are put in machines ? 

27. ^Vhat can be done in case they are getting too dark? 

28. Would a closed machine do better work than an open one? 

29. How may a hand tester be heated on the farm? 

30. What is a centrifuge? 



CHAPTER XXIX 
CREAM SEPARATION 

The centrifugal cream separator is to the dairyman what 
the reaper is to the grain grower, a harvester in fact (Figs. 112 
and 116). 

Milk fat has a specific gravity of about 0.90 and skim milk 
about 1.030. Therefore, the fat weighs .ST per cent as much as 
the skim milk or milk serum in which it is floating. The 
globules of fat, too, are so small, being only about Mo^ooo uf an 
inch in diameter, that they rise slowly and with difficulty in milk. 

For cream to rise naturally and even reasonably well the 
milk must be kept cool and left undisturbed for about twenty- 
four hours. Even then there will be a loss of butter fat of 
between 0.25 and 0.50 per cent in the skim milk. 

If a herd of ten cows yields an average of 5000 pounds of 
milk yearly, and the skim milk tests 0.4;) per cent fat, there will 
be a loss and virtual waste of about 160 pounds of butter fat. 
This at 30 cents a pound is worth $18, or nearly enough 
to pay for a good cream separator. 

This machine, now so common on the farms of the northern 
and eastern states, is finding its way onto the farms of the 
southern states also, as fast as livestock farming takes the place 
of cotton growing. 

The centrifugal cream separator leaves only from 0.01 to 0.03 
per cent of fat in the skim milk, yet it is based on the same princi- 
ple that operated in the case of gravity creaming, namely : The 
diiference in tlie weight per volume of the two substances, the 
milk fat and the milk serum. This is known as specific gravity. 
The high speed of the bowl throws the milk out against the wall 
with a force of from 80 pounds in the smaller, slower-running 
machines to as much as 100 pounds per square inch with even 
the larger hand separators. The fat is thereby literally squeezed 
inward while trving to flv outward, because the serum being 
332 



VARIATION OF CREAM TESTS 



333 



heavier is thrown outward with a yet greater force. As the bowl 
fills from the hopper above it naturally overflows, the skim milk 
escapes from the openings that lead from the wall, and the fat, 
mixed with enough milk serum to make it flow, escapes as cream 
from an opening which leads from near the center of the bowl. 

To make a richer cream the normal way is to change the 
relative positions of the two outlets, moving the cream screw 
inward or, in some machines, moving the skim milk screws out- 



^^ i£^ 




Fig. 112.- 



-There are many makes of hand cream separators having value. This illustrates 
a few of those used at the Minnesota School of Agriculture. 



ward. This makes the bowl carry more milk, increases the force, 
that is, the squeeze, and results in a richer cream — and vice versa. 

" Why do cream tests vary so from the same machine? " 
This question has been asked and variously answered a great 
many times but is still a live question. The following are the 
chief causes of unintentional variation in the fat content of hand 
separator cream as sent to market: 

1. Speed of the separator. — The faster the bowl revolves, 
the richer the cream will be. Slow turning is one cause of thin 
cream, though some makes of separators are more sensitive to 
this influence than others. A woman or a child often is not 



334 CREAM SEPARATION 

strong enough to produce a rich cream. Letting dowTi the speed 
of the handle from 60 to 45 revolutions per minute, cuts the force 
down nearly a half. 

2. The amount of dirt in the howl. — As the slime accumu- 
lates in the bowl, the cream becomes thinner but there will be 
more of it. There may not be an increased fat loss until long 
after the cream has begun to run thin. 

3. Rate of infioiu of milk. — The faster the milk goes in, the 
thinner the cream will be. If the milk hopper is kept full all the 
time, the cream will test less than it will if the machine is 
allowed to run empty occasionally. 

4. Per cent of fat in the milk. — A rich milk yields a richer 
cream than a thin milk, even when the separator is run exactly 
the same in the two cases. Rich cream for whipping can easily 
be produced by turning some of the cream just separated back 
into the milk to come through a second time. 

5. Temperature of the milk when separated. — Cold cream 
is thicker and more sticky than warm cream and when flowing 
out of the bowl drags along tliei sides of the cream screw and 
effects a change in relative points of outflow of skim milk and 
cream, thereby causing a richer cream to be delivered when the 
milk is cold than when it is warm. To do best work, most 
machines require a milk temperature of 75 degrees or above. 

6. Cream will rise on cream. — Cream that has stood a few 
hours will be much richer at the top than towards the bottom. 
If the top be poured off to make butter at home, the portion 
sold will be thinner than the average. 

Efficiency in Skimming. — The quantity of fat lost in the 
skim milk from centrifugal cream separators is largely a con- 
trollable matter. The chief factors are as follows : 

1. Speed of the Machine. — The thoroughness of skimming 
or completeness of the removal of the fat is a result of force act- 
ing through time. If more force is applied a shorter time will 
be required, or in other words, the milk need not remain in the 
machine so long to have the same work done upon it. It there- 
fore may be put through more rapidly. If the flow through the 
machine is held constant, however, the effect is toward a more 



CARE OF THE MACHINE 335 

thorougli skimming. Some of the very close skimming 
machines get that ability from the very high speed at which the 
bowl is spun. 

2. Temperature of Milk. — Warm milk is more fluid than 
cold milk and less viscid. Therefore, with any given speed of 
bowl and flow of milk the small fat globules are going to be 
most fully recovered or captured in the milk which is warm. 
The same very small fat globules which would rise slowly and 
with difficulty under the old gravity system will be the most 
difficult to recover mechanically, therefore require a warm 
fluid milk. 

3. Nature of the Milk. — The milk of some breeds of cows 
contains fat globules of smaller size than that of others. The 
large globule milk will skim slightly more easily, but not enough 
to notice in practice. 

Stripper cows yield milk which is more viscid or slightly 
thicker than fresh cows. Such milk should have both a warm 
temperature and full speed for thorough work. 

Dry feed, that is hay and fodder in winter, without silage 
or roots tends also to increase the diff.culty of skimming. Milk 
yielded on grass separates more easily than winter milk. 

Goats' milk is said to be very difficult to separate. 

4. Steadiness of Bowl. — The cream within the bowl is flung 
outward with considerable force, therefore lies close against that 
part of the whole mass which will eventually be delivered as 
skim milk. This being true, there must be a fine line between 
the cylindrical sheet of milk and cream which any vibration will 
tend to destroy. A trembling bowl cannot skim as well as the 
same would if it ran smoothly. 

A solid foundation and a perfectly level setting are essential 
to best work. In northern sections it is advisable to set one 
large or four smaller posts into the ground deep enough to go 
below the frost line to prevent the separator being thrown out of 
line by the heaving or bulging of the cement floor in winter. 

5. Care of the Machine. — Many or most cream separators 
are neglected. Water or milk is allowed to gain access to the 
gear box and to remain until the cogs have rusted. Poor oil is 



3b6 CREAM SEPARATION 

too often used and not enough of any sort. Those machines that 
have the horizontal speeding' devices especially need attention in 
the matter of oiling. Care should always he taken to keep all 
oil caps working freely. Dust should he kept from hlowing into 
the bearings. 

All starting should be done gradually to save strain on cogs, 
worm and bearings. Since the striking force of any moving body 
varies directly with its mass but as the square of the speed, it 
must be expected that those separators that are geared to be run 
at a high rate of speed will require more attention if not also 
wear out quicker than those that run at a slower rate. 

Cleaning the Bowl. — Unfortunately the weakness of human 
nature has been added to by the advice of some se])arator agents 
who, to make sales, have instructed the purchaser that it was not 
necessary to wash the bowl every time it was iised, that to wash it 
every two or three days was enough if the thing be well rinsed. 
Such advice is wrong, as any one will soon find who endeavors to 
sell sweet cream from an unwashed separator. Merely rinsing 
or spinning the discs in water is not enough to keep them in 
good condition. A few mechanical washing devices work very 
well for a hasty wash, but the particles of matter cling so tightly 
to the discs, wings and other inner parts that a sound scrub- 
bing with a brush or coarse cloth is necessary. 

Directions for Modifying Milk and Cream.^ — The simplest 
and most accurate method of modifying or standardizing cream 
or milk to any desired standard of butter fat is that developed by 
Pearson. This method, discussed below, is applicable not only in 
market milk and cream work but in ice cream making also. 

Example 1. — Given a 40 per cent cream and a 4 per cent 
milk, to be mixed to produce a K) per cent cream. The amount 
to be used can be determined very readily by the following 
procedure : 

^ Tliis section on the modifying of milk and cream is taken largely from 
the author's hullptiii, I'riiiciitles and Practice of Ice Cream Making. Vt. 
Sta. 155. 



DIRECTIONS FOR MODIFYING MILK AND CREAM 337 

(1.) Subtracting the figure representing the desired quality 
from the known cream fat percentage to obtain the amount of 
milk to be used. 

(2.) Subtracting the known percentage of the milk from the 
desired percentage of the mixture to obtain the amount of cream 
to be used. 

Thus, in the above stated example, 40 — 1G = 24, 
16 — 4:^ 12. This can best be illustrated by drawing a square 
and placing the figures as shown in the accompanying diagram : 



(16 — 4=12) 
(40—10 = 24) 



It will be noticed that in this particular example the pro- 
portions of cream to milk are 12 : 24; that, in other words, by 
mixing together 12 gallons of 40 per cent cream and 24 gal- 
lons of 4 per cent milk there will be obtained 36 gallons of 16 
per cent cream. 

Example 2. — Given a 42 per cent cream to be reduced by 
skim milk to a 20 per cent cream. The square will be : 





(20 — = 20) 
(42 — 20 = 22) 



Mixing in the proportion of 20 cream and 22 skim milk, the 
result is attained. Fig-uring as before for proof : 

42 X .20 = 8.40. 

.00 X .22 = 00. 

8.40 + 00 = 8.40. 

20 + 22 = 42. 8.40 S- 42 = .20. 
22 



338 



CREAM SEPARATION 



If one wishes to know, for example, how much cream should 
be added to 10 gallons of skim milk to make a 20 per cent cream, 
one fig-iires as before. 22 : 20 : : 10 : x. This gives 9.09 gallons, 
as may be proven thus : 



.42 X 9.09= 3.82 
00 X 10 = 0.00 

19.09 ) 3.820 ( .20 per cent of fat 
3.818 




20 

Or, reversing the proposition, if one has a 10-gallon can of 
42 per cent cream and wishes to know how much skim milk to add 
to it to reduce it to a 20 per cent grade, one figures 20 : 22 : : 10 : x. 
x= 11 gallons, which will be found sufficient. 

Example 3. — Given milks carrying 3^ and 5 per cent fat to 
be mixed to make -1 per cent milk : 



(5 — 4 = 1) 
(4 — 31/0 = 1/.) 



1/2 : 1 : : 1 : 2. Hence one can of the lower and two of the higher 
grade will make three cans of the 4 per cent grade. 

Any other figures may be used as desired ; as, for example, 

4.6 and 3.3 to make a 3.7 per cent grade. 4.6 — 3.7 = 0.9 

3.7 — 3.3 =^ 0.4. Four parts of the higher grade and nine 
parts of the lower are called for. 

Another very convenient tool in this connection is a rule by 
means of which one may find directly how many gallons (or 
pounds) of rich cream and skim milk will be required to pro- 
duce any definite number of gallons (or pounds) of cream test- 
ing any definite percentage of fat. The rule is: Multiply the 
amount of cream desired by the test of tlie cream desired and 
divide this product by tlie test of tli© rich cream at hand. This 



QUESTIONS 339 

will give the amount of the rich cream required for the mixture. 
The difference between the amount of cream desired and the 
amount of rich cream required will indicate the amount of skim 
milk required to be mixed with the rich cream to produce the 
desired result. 

Weight of Cream Per Gallon. — Since butter fat is only 
about 87 per cent as heavy as skim milk and since the lighter 
substance varies greatly in amount in cream, it must be expected 
that the weight of a given volume of cream will vary with its fat 
content. When cream is sold by weight, and paid for by the gal- 
lon, it is quite important to know the number of pounds in a 
gallon of cream of varying grades. Below are shown the specific 
gravity and weight per gallon of water, milk and cream of vari- 
ous fat contents : 

Weight in lbs. 
Specific Gravity per Gallon 

Water 1.000 8.34 

Skim milk 1.037 8.64 

4% milk 1.032 8.60 

10% milk 1.025 8.54 

15% cream 1.018 8.48 

20% cream 1.013 8.44 

22% cream . . 1.011 8.42 

24% cream 1.009 8.40 

26% cream 1.008 8.40 

28% cream 1.006 8.38 

30% cream 1.004 8.36 

35% cream 999 8.32 

40% cream 995 8.29 

QUESTIONS 

1. How does a separator separate? 

2. How much fat is lost in skim milk with gravity creaming? With mechan- 

ical creaming? 

3. What is the normal way of changing the fat content of cream? 

4. Explain reasons for fat variation in separator cream? 

5. How must a separator he set if it is to dg good work? 

6. Explain on the board hoAV to modify milk or cream to any given fat 

percentage ? 

7. What is the weight of a gallon of water, skim milk, milk, and 35 per 

cent cream? 



CHAPTER XXX 
CARE AND RIPENING OF CREAM ON THE FARM 

The price of butter depends more largely upon its flavor 
than upon all other qualities put together. The flavor of butter 
is due almost wholly to the kind and amount of bacterial growth 
which takes place in the cream before the butter is made, often 
before the cream ever reaches the place of manufacture. 

On March 1st, 1916, the prices of creamery butter on the 
Xew York market were as follows : Special high score, 37 to 37^2 
cents; extras, 92 per cent score, 36 to 361/2 cents ; firsts, 90 to 92 
per cent score, 35 to 36 cents; seconds, 87 to 90 per cent score, 
33I/2 cents; ladles, 23 cents. The difl^erence in price between 
the 33l/^-cent and the 37i/^-cent butt-er was due entirely to 
flavor or tasty quality. The price is seldom influenced mate- 
rially by the amount of salt or moisture or fat in the butter and 
usually not materially influenced by workmanship. The differ- 
ence, 4 cents, is nearly' 12 per cent of the price quoted for seconds 
or, in other words, a more pleasing flavor would have enabled the 
manufacturers of that butter to have sold it for 12 per cent 
more than was obtained. When butter is more plentiful, as in 
spring and early summer, the difference in price is even greater. 
In the case of the 23-cent butter, there are defects other than 
mere flavor to cause the discouragingly low price, though the fat 
in it cost the farmer the same to produce as that which sold for 
almost twice as much. 

The value of cleanliness is nowhere more manifest than in 
the dairy. The price depends on flavor, flavor depends on bac- 
teria, and bacteria depend on the dirtiness of the cow's teats, the 
milker's hands, pail, strainer cloths, and separator. If all these 
be clean the cream is well started on the road toward a choice 
butter and high price. 

A cool temperature following quickly after separating is ex- 
ceedingly important to a cream and butter of good keeping- 
quality. The rate of growth of bacteria at the temperature of 50 
340 



CREAM GRADING 341 

degrees compared with 70 degrees is well shown in hgiire 115. It 
is seen that as a rule the degeneration of cream is many times 
more rajjdd at the temperatnre of 70 than at 50 degrees. Only 
about twenty minutes under good conditions is required for one 
germ to mature and split into two germs. To prevent rapid 
growth the cream should be cooled immediately after separating 
to a temperature of 50 degrees or below. Clean cream cooled at 
once in ice water will keep sweet a week or ten days very readily. 
Milk has been kept four weeks and cream iive weeks without the 
aid of anything except coldness. Under plain farm conditions 
the cream may, by the use of cold well water, be kept three to four 
days if it were produced in a cleanly manner. 

In practically all the northern states the deep well water has 
a temperature of 45 to 52 degrees and serves very well in cooling 
cream if arrangements be provided as in figures 113 and 114, 
in which all the water pumped by windmill or gas engine for the 
stock flows first around the cream cans and thence to the cattle 
and horses. Where an arrangement of this sort is not prac- 
ticable, ice should by all means be provided. Where the cream 
only is cooled, one ton of ice will suffice for two cows for the sea- 
son in the northern states. If the ice costs $2 per ton or $1 per 
cow a season, the profit on the investment will amount to at least 
$4 per cow after paying for the ice, and often to twice this 
amount, through the increased value of tlie cream. 

Frequency of delivery has much to do with quality. While 
it is a fact that cream may be produced so clean and kept so cold 
as to remain sweet two weeks or more, it is also time that under 
most American conditions, even in the recognized dairy sec- 
tions, plans should be made for the delivery of the cream to the 
creamery or its making up into butter at least three times a 
week in summer and twice in winter. 

Cream grading and payment for and on quality has long 
been advocated. It has been recognized for years that clean 
sound cream is worth more than that which has undergone 
partial breaking down of one or more of its constituents. But 
for various reasons, chiefly business rivalry, grading has not yet 
become general. It is being done, however, in various localities, 



342 CARE AND RIPENING OF CREAM ON THE FARM 

a difference of three to four cents being made between the first 
and the second class cream, and two to three cents between 
second and third classes. It is both illogical and unfair to pay as 
much for the fat in poor cream as for that in good. 




Fig. 113. — Milk cooling tank, cover off to show arrangement of cans. All water 
pumped for the stock passes first through this tank. (Courtesy Minnesota Tank and Silo 
Co., Minneapolis, Minn.) 

Cream Ripening. — What is it? By cream ripening is 
meant the process of allowing or forcing the cream to become 
sour by means of a certain kind of bacteria which, while gen- 
erating acid, also produces a thick glossy condition and an 
agreeable flavor. 



HOW IS IT DONE? 



343 



Why is it done? For the purpose of improving the flavor, 
increasing' the yield of butter through a reduced loss of fat in 
the buttermilk and to shorten the time required to do the 
churning. The latter two benefits are brought about by the fact 
that the acid coagulates the casein and renders it brittle. 




Fig. 114. — Milk cooling tank, cover in place. (Courtesy of Minnesota Tank and Silo Co., 

^Minneapolis, Mian.) 

How is it done ? There are two more or less distinct meth- 
ods: (1) the farm dairy method; (2) the creamery method. 

1. In what may be called the farm dairy method the process 
is direct and simple. The cream is held after separating for one 



344 CARE AND RIPENING OF CREAM ON THE FARM 

to three days in c^is in cold water, and then about twelve to 
eighteen hours before the butter is to be made, all the cream to 
be churned is poured, if possible, into one vat or can, thoroughly 
mixed, warmed to about 70 degrees in summer or 75 degrees in 
winter, and left to sour. It should be stirred frequently to pre- 
vent curd clots from forming in the bottom of the can or vat. 
When the cream has become somewhat thick and glossy and 
pours like thick milk gravy it is about ripe enough and should 
be cooled to about 53 degrees to prevent further rapid growth of 
the lactic acid bacteria, also to temper tlie fat that firm butter 
may be made. After the cream has stood cool for four or more 
hours it will be ready for churning (Fig. 115). 

If the cream is held for a longer period than about three 
days there is danger of a bitter flavor and an old cream taste 
developing. The bitter germ is favored by a temperature 
between -10 and 50 degrees, but grows slowly. On the other 
hand, if the cream be warmed to a temperature of 85 or 90 
degrees it is liable to develop a gassy, foul-flavored condition. The 
germ that produces gas in milk and cream is usually one of the 
colon group, which lives naturally in the alimentary canal of 
cows and other warm-blooded animals. The warmer tem]jera- 
ture in cream therefore naturally favors the growth of such 
bacteria. 

Can cream be ripened too much? Indeed, it can. If the 
souring temperature, about 70 degrees, be maintained for too 
long a time the acid will literally kill off the very kind of bac- 
teria that produced it and the cream will take on an old and a 
harsh taste. Butter made from such over-ripe cream will not 
keep as well as that made from cream containing less acid. 

Cream is in best condition to chuni well and still produce a 
good keeping butter when it contains about 0.45 to 0.50 per cent 
acid, if the cream test 35 per cent fat; or 0.55 to 0.60 per cent 
acid if the cream contains only about 25 per cent fat. 

When the cream has stood warm until sufficiently sour as 
shown by one of the chemical tests, and the senses, it should 
then be cooled to a temperature of about 52 or 53 des^rees or even 
lower in summer, or 56 degrees in winter, and held at that tern- 



QUESTIONS 345 

peratiire for at least four liours iu order that tlie butter fat may 
have time to solidify, or temper. 

When once thoroughly soured and cooled, cream may be held 
for a day or two if necessary without great injury. The pres- 
ence of the lactic acid prevents most other foi-ms of bacteria from 
growing, whereas if it were endeavored to keep the cream sweet 
by low temperature for four or five days it is probable that a 
bitter, unpleasant-flavored bacterial growth would have occurred. 







a 



Fig. 115. — Showing the effect of temperature on rate of growth of bacteria. 
a at 50° F., l»at 70°F. 

2. The creamery system consists first in pasteurizing the 
cream for the purpose of destroying all, or as many as possible, 
of the bacteria that were brought in by the patrons and then 
souring or ripening it by means of a starter prepared from a 
pure culture grown for the purpose. A starter is essentially 
only a quantity of clean-flavored sour milk used to hasten and 
to control the growth of bacteria in the cream. This process is 
too long and complicated for farm dairy use. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What relation is there between care of cream on the farm and price 

received for the finished butter? Explain. 

2. How does cold temperature of cream preserve its quality? 

.3. How long after separating is it safe to try to keep cream before it is 
made into butter? 

4. What difference in price is it fair to make between sweet, clean cream and 

that which is sour and off flavor? 

5. What is meant by cream ripening? 

6. Why is cream ripened? 

7. How is cream ripened? 

8. May cream be ripened too much? 

9. What is meant by tempering cream? 

10. Briefly, what is the creamery system of cream ripening? 



CHAPTER XXXI 
DAIRY BUTTER MAKING 

The large place so long held by home-made butter is now 
largely filled by that made in a factory, called creamery butter, 
and the change has come about almost wholly during the past 
twenty-five years. Whereas formerly every rural home was 
supposed to make butter sufficient for its needs, if not for sale 
as well, it is now not at all infrequent to find that on farms where 
ten to twenty cows are kept no butter whatever is regularly made, 
creamery butter being purchased for consumption on the farm. 
This has been in most cases beneficial in relieving the housewife 
in many instances of a portion of her burden, as well as render- 
ing it possible to secure a greater cash return from the herd 
through the production of a larger quantity of more uniformly 
high class butter, and through it the finding of better market. 

It is not an unmixed good, however, since some buy who 
should make. Once the art of making cheese, soap, synip and 
the curing of meats was well known and practiced .by the people 
in general. Now these are manufactured elsewhere and the pro- 
ducer must buy when he should have preserved his own. It is to 
be hoped that butter making does not go the same road. 

The Place for Farm-made Butter. — There are places in the 
northern creamery sections of the country as well as occasional 
instances in creamery territory where the production of a high 
class dairy butter for market is being found highly profitable. 

The principle underlying the process of butter making is 
identical whether the work be done on the farm or in the factory, 
on a small scale or a large. The methods and machines employed 
to accomplish the work differ in size but not in principle. 

Collecting the Cream. — On farms it will be found almost 
universally desirable to collect the cream as produced from day 
to day and hold it in well tinned cans. The ordinary four- 
gallon " shot gun " can, eight inches in diameter and twenty 
inches high, is excellent. If the cans are rusty or have exposed 
346 



THE CHURN 347 

iron patches the butter is very liable indeed to have a strong 
metallic or even a fishy flavor. The cream should be cooled 
promptly after separation to a temperature betw^een 50 and 45 
degrees F. If warm cream is mixed v^ith old cream the 
whole mass will start souring promptly. Therefore, fresh lots 
should be kept separate until cold, when they may be mixed with 
that previously procured. If the cream reaches a temperature 
of 55 degrees the souring process proceeds quite rapidly. There 
is no particular advantage in cooling at any time below 40 de- 
grees, however, and 45 degrees will do very well indeed. 

Tor the production of best butter, cream should be churned 
at least twice a week in winter and three times in summer. In 
hot climates daily chumings are to be preferred. 

Churning. — The churning process consists essentially in a 
series of concussions which serve to break the curd and to cause 
the minute globules of butter fat to come into contact with one 
another and cause them to stick together, growing in size with 
the addition of others until granules are formed sufficiently 
large to be easily removed. The process is essentially the same 
whether done by stirring cream in a bowl, pounding a skin bag 
filled with milk, plimging a vertical dasher or revolving a barrel 
churn permitting the cream to fall. 

The churn used will vary in size and kind with the amount 
of work to be done, but some form of barrel is preferable to any 
in which paddles only revolve or in which the cream slops from 
one end of the chum to the other, the receptacle not revolving. 

All of the so-called " lightning " chums, and most of those 
made of metal should be looked upon as thoroughly impracti- 
cable. Small chums made of earthenware may be perfectly 
cleansed, and in this respect are desirable. Wooden churns, how- 
ever, are still recognized as standard. While more difficult to 
clean and keep sweet, such may be accomplished with care. 
Wood has the further advantage of being a good non-conductor 
of heat and therefore aids in holding the temperature of the 
cream near the desired point, even though the temperature of 
the atmosphere of the room is higher or lower than the cream 
within. Another valuable feature of wood is that when well 
scalded and soaked, butter fat will not stick to it. Butter of 



348 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING 

better grain aud texture can be made in wooden churns than in 
metal churns because it is impossible to so prepare metal that 
the fat will not adhere considerably even under ideal tempera- 
ture conditions, and badly if the churning is being done at a 
temperature which is but slightly too high. 

To prepare the wooden churn for use, liberal quantities of 
scalding hot water should be used, primarily, for the purpose of 
soaking the wood, or in other words, driving the air out of it. 
When the tissue of the wood has become filled with hot water 
the whole should be well cooled with cold water in order that 
the warmth contained in the walls of the churn shall not raise 
the temperature of the cream. The same principles pertain 
to the pre]:»aration of all woodenware, such as ladles and worker. 

Straining the cream into the churn is a wise precaution for 
removal of particles of curd as well as for removal of sawdust or 
any other foreign matter which may have fallen into the cream. 

'No barrel churn should be filled more than one-third full 
if quick and exhaustive churning is to be done. There must be 
room left for the cream to fall. 

Coloring the butter is accomplished by adding the liquid 
color to tlie cream immediately before starting to churn. The 
quantity used will vary with the breed of cattle, the feed that 
they are consuming, and the market to which the butter is to 
be shipped. With Guernsey and Jersey cows on pasture no 
color will be needed, since their product is naturally yellow. The 
shade of natural butter varies all the way from a bright orange, 
produced by Guernseys on blue grass pasture, to an almost pure 
white, produc-ed by Holsteins, Ayrshires and Shorthorns on win- 
ter feed. In winter, generally speaking, one cubic centimeter 
of color for every pound of butter fat in the cream, or one tea- 
spoonful for every galloii of cream will be found abundant. Some 
colors are stronger than others and care must be exercised to not 
use too much. The market requirements should also be studied. 

The color used is the outer portion of the seed of the annatto 
plant which grows in the South Sea Islands and South America. 
The color is incorporated mechanically in cottonseed oil as a 
carrier. When used, the added color accompanies the oil and 
is made to surround the many globules of fat. Butter color 



WHEN TO STOP CHURNING 349 

is used for the purpose of maiutaiuing a reasonable degree of 
uniformity in color throughout the entire year or, in other words, 
to make butter look like butter, the year round, not like butter 
in summer and lard in winter. 

Gas (carbon dioxide) develops in cream with the growth 
of the bacteria, which is released with a few revolutions of the 
churn. In all tightly closed barrel churns the gas should be 
given opportunity to escape once, and usually twice. 

The speed of churn should be as rapid as possible and still 
secure the maximum of concussion or pounding of the cream 
within. This naturally will vary with the thinness of the 
cream and the amount in the churn. 

At this point in the process the churning should be con- 
tinued evenly until the globules of fat have assembled into 
granules and the granules grown to be sufficiently large for 
easy and thorough removal. 

When to Stop Churning. — If the churning process is con- 
tinued too long the butter will gather into larger and yet 
larger lumps until finally the entire mass is in one or two 
great chunks or balls. Such butter is over-churned and has 
incorporated throughout its entire mass a large quantity of but- 
temiilk. The butter maker at this point is faced with the 
option of either permitting the buttermilk to remain in the 
butter mass and there sour and produce a poor butter, or of 
squeezing and working the buttermilk out, which process 
is very liable to produce a greasy butter with poor grain and 
weak body. To obviate both these difficulties the churning 
process should be stopped when the granules of butter have 
reached the size of a kernel of wheat or cracked com. If the 
cream has been ripened sufficiently to render the casein brittle 
and if the temperature of the cream and the fat within it has 
been such that the particles of fat can stick together when they 
do touch, the process of churning need not have consumed 
more than twenty minutes. To churn with aliand churn more 
than twenty to twenty-five minutes is a waste of labor. Where 
a larger churn driven by power is used it is preferable to 
cool the cream to such a temperature that the butter will not 
come in less than about thirty minutes nor more than forty-five. 



350 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING 

Drawing off the buttermilk is best done by allowing tbe 
chum to stand quietly a few minutes until the granules of butter 
have risen to the top, when the buttermilk below may be drawn 
off through a sieve quickly and with slight loss of butter. The 
temperature of the butter at this time should be taken. 

Washing the butter is done for the purpose of removing 
practically all of the buttermilk remaining in the mass. The 
water, naturally, should be clean and of a temperature ranging 
from the same to two degrees lower than the butter at the time 
the buttermilk was dra^vn. In farm practice the butter should 
be washed twice, using each time fully as much water as there 
was cream at the start. The churn should be revolved two or 
three times with each wash water to insure a more thorough 
removal of the buttermilk. The last wash water should be kept 
on the butter until the salt is ready to be applied when the tem- 
perature of the work room is too warm, 65 degrees or above. 

Salt is used in butter for two purposes : To give flavor and 
to presei^e the butter. A few people, however, prefer the flavor 
of unsalted, or so-called " sweet butter." They should expect, 
however, that such wall become rancid or moldy in a very 
much shorter time than would be the case had salt been mixed 
with the same butter. The presence of salt to the amount of 
21/2 per cent of tlie total butter is protection also against mold- 
ing. Neither green mold nor the ordinary black mold can grow 
in the presence of such a quantity of salt. To make butter con- 
tain 2^ per cent of salt in the finished article it is necessary to 
add it in amount from 1 to 10 per cent, varying with the fine- 
ness of the salt, the amount of water left in the granules of but- 
ter in the chum, and the amount of butter made in proportion 
to the size of the chum. A small batch requires more in prof- 
portion. The more water remaining in the butter the greater 
will be the amount of salt washed away. Fine salt, likewise, 
dissolves m.ore quickly and wastes more readily than coarse salt. 
Coarse salt has the disadvantage, however, of being slow in dis- 
solving, requiring from fifteen minutes to an hour to go into 
solution. So long a time as this, however, will often cause the 
butter in the chum to become warm and altogether too soft for 
good working, or in winter to become too hard. It is desirable 



SALT 351 

to work sooner, but if the working process be continued while the 
coarse grains of salt are undissolved they will grind and pierce 
the granules and globules of butter fat to such an extent as to 
make the whole mass salvj and oily in texture and flavor. It is 
highly desirable that salt for butter making be fine in texture. 

Salt as ordinarily offered on the market varies considerably 
in its purity. Some which is designed for use in butter is in 
reality unfit because containing chemical impurities such as 
plaster of Paris, which renders the salt difficult and slow of solu- 
tion. These impurities are liable indeed to cause the salt to 
remain hard and granular, like so much sand. So far as known 
they have no injurious effect upon cattle, but certainly render 
butter less valuable. Aside from these chemical impurities 
some salt has been exposed to dust, so when a teaspoonful is dis- 
solved in a cup of water it leaves a gray film of dust on the sur- 
face. Such salt should not be used. Again, salt will absorb odors 
if it has been stored where such is possible. The unpleasant odor 
of a close warehouse, general store, or kitchen is not infrequently 
discernible in salt and in butter when such salt is used. 

To distribute the salt evenly throughout the butter with the 
least possible amount of pressing or digging of the butter, the salt 
should be added in the churn. This is best done by drawing the 
second butter wash water thoroughly. The churn should then 
be rocked backwards sufficiently to throw the granular mass of 
butter against the wall of the chum opposite the drain hole. With 
a small ladle a thin layer of butter is then sprinkled upon the 
floor of the churn. Upon this salt is sprinkled. A second layer 
of butter is then dra^vn lightly upon the first. Thus, layer upon 
layer, the salt and butter are mixed. If the temperature of the 
room will permit, the butter should, at this point, be allowed to 
stand for at least five minutes to permit the salt to dissolve and 
the excess water to drain away, at the end of which time 
the butter should be pressed together firmly enough to permit 
it to be w^orked. If a separate worker is used it should be thor- 
oughly scalded and cooled. After a slight amount of working 
to more thoroughly press together the many granules of butter 
the mass should again be permitted to stand several minutes to 
give the salt time to completely dissolve. 



352 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING 

Working is done for the purpose (1) of distributing tlie salt 
thoroughly and evenly throughout the whole mass of butter, ( 2 ) 
of pressing out the superfluous water and (3) of forming the 
granules of butter into a solid mass. The worker which will 
do this with the least amount of grinding or smearing and 
which is also inexpensive and easily cleaned is the best worker. 
That known as the lever butter worker, made in various sizes, 
is unquestionably the most satisfactory all-around instrument 
where a small quantity of butter is to be made. 

Here the butter should be spread evenly and worked by 
means of the five-sided lever. The working consists in a fold- 
ing and pressing process. The loose crumbs of butter must 
be gathered in from time to time and the near and far, not right 
and left, edges of the flat layer of butter turned inward. This 
folding in and pressing out process is to be continued until the 
salt is dissolved and evenly distributed and the butter has 
assumed a compact mellow, waxy consistency, when working 
should cease. Too much working causes oily texture and flavor. 

Where butter is to be made from a herd of twenty or more 
cows one of the small-sized combined churn-and-worker (Figs. 
116 and 117) is to be recommended. They are now made in 
sizes sufiiciently small to chum and work 25 to 50 pounds of 
butter very satisfactorily. The principle involved in the roller 
within must conform with those indicated as necessary for the 
outside worker, namely, that the butter shall be folded and 
pressed rather than ground and sliced. Care should be taken 
in selecting a combined churn, as some are superior to others. 

Packing. — Earthen jars are still recognized as the most satis- 
factory receptacle for butter so far as the keeping qualities of 
the butter are concerned. Butter made from mildly ripened 
cream in September and October, carefully washed, moderately 
salted and solidly packed in clean earthen jars, covered with a 
» quarter inch of salt paste, and placed in an ordinary f ann cellar 
will keep so well as to be very usable throughout the entire 
winter. It would be desirable, however, under such circum- 
stances to freeze the jars of butter at the beginning of the winter 
and to thaw out one at a time when needed for use. Jars have 
the disadvantage, however, of being somewhat expensive unless 



WORKING 



353 



l-^'- •- ;• - - 




. ::-■■■. . - -:rm- '4^ 


^^^^^^BB^^a*^^^ffBt^3 


i 

If 


u. Jri 







Fia. 116. — Cream separator churn and buttpr worker suited to the needs of the sniall dairy. 




Fig. 117. — A cylindrical churn and butter worker combined. 



354 



DAIRY BUTTER MAIvING 



thej can be returned, and of being heavy and easily broken. 
Butter cut from jars also is irregular and often ragged in ap- 
pearance. For these various reasons the pound print has come 
into favor in all sections of the country. 

Print tools which will form from one to a dozen pound 
cakes at one time are on the market (Fig. 118). The single 
print, however, is not desirable for regular use because it is slow 
and because the butter packed into it is too liable to become 
smeared and greasy from much handling. It is convenient 
to have one ready, however, in order that small special orders 
may be more neatly filled. The print shown in figure 118, which 
will make eight to twelve pound-prints at one filling, is thor- 
oughly practical where small amounts are made. The form 





View from above showing cutting wires. 
Fig. lis. — A multiple butter printer which cuts the prints apart with wire. 

known as the Friday is very convenient, especially where the 
butter is liable to be soft when made and requires hardening in. 
the refrigerator before being cut into pound bricks and wrapped. 

The paper used for wrapping butter should not be coated with 
paraffin, but should be parchment paper. The carton should, 
however, be thoroughly well paraffined inside to prevent evapora- 
tion of moisture, and absorption of odors by the butter. 

General Caution. — The fat which is later to be made into 
butter exists in the milk and cream in the form of very minute 
round balls, varying in size, but averaging about3'f QjOOO of an inch 
in diameter. ,The reason for churning is to stick these little 
globules together into larger masses called granules. The rea- 
son for working is to form these granules into a single mass. 
The object especially to be held in mind throughout the entire 
process is to collect and assemble these small particles without in 



MARKETING 355 

any way bruising or disrupting the small particle itself. If one 
globule is broken or pierced and made to flow into another, the 
butter becomes to that extent salvy and greasy. To overwork 
the butter is to give it somewhat the condition which it would 
have if it had been melted. It is not incorrect in this connection 
to think of the butter fat globule as a single grape. Many, when 
gathered in clusters, form a unit bunch of grapes, yet each 
individual on the bunch should be perfect. The bunch, or, in this 
simile, the granule of butter, may then be assembled into larger 
masses, the grapes into baskets, the butter into jars. Yet, just as 
it is desirable that every bunch of grapes and every grape on 
each bunch be perfect, so is it desirable that the fine units, the 
granules and the globules of butter fat remain perfect. 

Marketing. — The old way of bringing the farm butter to 
the country grocery and there trading it for goods is about the 
most unprofitable, uninspiring method of marketing known. 
Where a passably good dairy butter is made regularly, custom- 
ers can usually be found who will pay well for it. The butter 
maker is also stimulated to do a little better work when the con- 
sumers of the butter are known. There is a wider field open, 
however, to those prepared to produce a high class dairy butter, 
who also have had training in selling. Many wealthy people in 
cities gladly pay from 40 to 60 cents a pound for choice dairy 
butter. The chief difiiculty of utilizing this market is that of 
transportation. To express a small quantity in an ice box is 
expensive, while to send by parcels post is unsatisfactory, be- 
cause the butter will melt in transit and deteriorate in quality 
very rapidly, so that when received and cooled it will not be the 
choice butter that it was when started. 

The selling of butter to neighboring fanners is coming to be 
quite an industry in regions where whole milk is shipped to 
cities, and also to some extent in communities where cream is 
regularly sent to the creamery and where the housewife prefers 
to buy from a neighbor rather than to go to the labor of churning 
the small quantity needed for the home table. The writer has 
met a few enterprising farmers doing a flourishing business in 
providing butter, cured meats, and eggs to neighboring farmers. 



356 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING 

The causes of difficult churning in winter are practically 
only two in number. First, the cream from which the butter is 
attempted to be made has too often been kept so cold that the 
bacteria producing the lactic acid, which in turn makes the 
casein of the cream brittle, have not been able to grow. Thus 
the cream remains sweet and tough, almost leathery in consist- 
ency. To overcome this difficulty the cream must be warmed 
and given time to sour. The second cause is a low temperature. 
Butter fat at a temperature of 100 degrees F. is a liquid, while 
the same globules at a temperature of 40 and even at 50 degrees 
are so hard that they cannot stick together when they do touch 
in the churning process any more than two tallow or wax candles 
will adhere when knocked together. There is no necessity for 
consuming more than half an hour in the churning process. To 
obtain results, however, it is essential that the cream be sour and 
that the temperature be high enough to cause the butter fat to be 
slightly sticky. The churning temperature will vary all the way 
from 55 degrees in summer up to 65 degrees in winter. The 
higher temperatures will be needed where the cows are fed 
considerable quantities of cottonseed meal, lower temperatures 
where more corn is fed. As a general rule 56 to 60 degrees will 
be found desirable in the west and 58 to 64 degrees in l^ew Eng- 
land and the southern states. With cream adequately ripened 
the length of time required to churn vdll regulate the tempera- 
ture at which to churn. "\\^iile it is true that stale cows and dry 
,feed aggravate the case they become of little importance to one 
who will remember to " sour the cream and churn at 60." 

Butter Overrun — The question is often asked why or how 
it is that the creamery managers can pay to the farmer as many 
cents per pound for the fat as are received for the finished butter. 
The question also frequently calls into question the accuracy or 
honesty of the testing. Then when the farmer is able to chum a 
quantity of cream and from it secure considerably more butter 
than he could be given credit for in pounds of fat at the cream- 
ery, he is convinced that fraud has been perpetrated upon him. 
To both these questions the answer may be given that the result 



THE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER 357 

is due to the overrun, and that by overrun is meant the increase 
in quantity of butter over butter fat secured by churning. The 
butter fat paid for at tlie creamery is the clear oil. Butter is not 
all oil, but contains water, salt and curd also. The analysis of 
100 pounds of ordinary butter shows a composition about as 
follows : 

Per Cent 

Water 14 

Salt 21/2 

Curd 1 

ITVa 
Fat 821/2 



100 



In other words, 82.5 pounds of fat, by the addition of water, salt, 
and curd, has been made to become 100 pounds of butter. 

Viewing the same matter slightly differently wo may figure 
that 100 pounds of fat taking up 19 pounds of water, 3.5 pounds 
of salt, and 1 pound of curd, will produce 123.5 pounds of butter. 

In good home dairy practice the test of the cream, may be 
ascertained with a fair degree of accuracy by churning it, weigh- 
ing the butter, and subtracting from the weight of the butter, 
one-sixth its weight, and then dividing the remaining five-sixths 
weight by the number of pounds of cream used at the start. This 
method of checking should show an agreement within 2 per 
cent of fat with that allowed at the creamery. 

Under skillful method of manufacture the quantity of butter 
over fat may be as high as 22 per cent without the incorporation 
of such a quantity of water or salt as to render the butter either 
inferior or illegal. And if the overrun falls as low as about 16 
per cent regularly, something is wrong. The cream may be 
inaccurately sampled or tested, the fat loss in the buttermilk may 
be excessive or some other leak is present. Buttermilk should 
not test more than 0.05 or 0.00 per cent fat. 

The composition of butter varies somewhat with the 
methods and temperatures used in making. Butter may easily 



358 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING 

vary in composition, as will be seen by the following table of com- 
position of two samples, A and B : 

A B 

Per Cent Per Cent 

Water 12 15 

Salt 2 3 

Curd 1 1 

Fat 85 81 

Totals 100 100 

It will be noted from the above two examples that whereas in 
" A " 85 pounds of fat were required to produce 100 pounds of 
butter, only 81 pounds were required to produce 100 pounds in 
the case of " B," a difference of 4 pounds, which at 25 cents 
per pound would make a difference of one dollar per 100 pounds, 
or one cent a pound. Differences even greater than those indi- 
cated occur in practice. The amount of butter which a given 
quantity of cream will produce will easily be one-sixth greater 
than the amount of fat in that cream, as shown by the Babcock 
test, and many calculate butter yield on the basis of one-fifth 
increase. It is not desirable that the butter-maker endeavor to 
incorporate any unusual amount of water. There is danger 
that an illegal amount be retained as well as danger of an infe- 
rior article being produced. It is desirable, however, that from 
21/2 to 3 per cent salt be incorporated. This is to assist in pre- 
serving the butter, while it is being held at moderate tempera- 
tures. In cold storage where all is frozen hard the "unsalted 
butter keeps as well as the salted (Fig. 119). 

Market Classes of Butter — Butter now made in America 
possesses all shades of quality from the choice creamery, scor- 
ing 96 to 97 per cent and commanding several cents premium in 
price, to packing stock or renovating stock which cannot well be 
scored and is a drug on the market at less than half the price 
paid for the best. 

The butter which makes tlie market, however, scores usually 
between 85 and 95 per cent. The grade is established by a score 
based on the several qualities that the butter should possess. In 
the following table are shown the points considered, the weight 



FORMS OF SELLING 359 

or count given to each and essentially or approximately how 
butter of the four recognized grades would score. The flavor is 
most important, yet the body may be " weak " or " crumbly" ; 
the color a little " wavy " ; the salt too light or " undissolved," 
or the package " untidy " or damaged. 

Score Cards Market Classes and Scores 

Points Full Score Choice Extra Firsts Seconds 

Flavor 45 41 39 37 35.5 

Body 25 25 25 24 23.5 

Color 15 15 14.5 14.5 14 

Salt 10 10 9.5 9.5 9.5 

Package 5 5 5 5 4.5 

Total Score 100 96 93 90 87 

Price (Illustrative) 35c 34c 31c 28c 

Forms of Selling — In what form it is preferable to sell the 
product of the dairy will naturally be settled in many or most 
places by local circumstances. Yet some producers are so located 
that the product may be sold as market milk, as sweet cream, or 
as butter fat contained in cream. If butter fat is worth 30 
cents per pound, how will the sale of sweet 20 per cent cream at 
60 cents per gallon compare with it ? If we assume a dairy of 
twenty cows yielding 25 pounds per day per cow or 500 pounds 
of 3.6 percent milk we shall have 18 pounds (500 X -036 = 18) 
fat, which at 30 cents per pound is worth $5.40. If this be sold 
in the form of 30 per cent cream there will be 60 pounds of such 
cream and 440 pounds of skim milk, which, at 40 cents per hun- 
dred, has a value of $1.76, making a total of $7.16. 

The 500 pounds of 3.6 per cent milk will produce 90 pounds 
of 20 per cent cream. 

Pounds Milk : pounds cream : : per cent cream : per cent milk 
500 : X •• 20 : 3.6 

Since 20 per cent cream weighs 8.44 pounds per gallon there 
will be 10.66 gallons of cream, which at 60 cents per gallon will 
be worth $6.40. The skim milk remaining (500 pounds milk 
minus 90 pounds cream equals 410 pounds skim milk) is worth 
about 40 cents per hundred or $1.64, This brings the total 



360 



DAIRY BUTTER MAKING 




FORMS OF SELLING 



361 



receipts up to $8.04. This shows a profit in sweet cream selling 
over selling- fat for butter-making purposes of 88 cents per day 
on a herd of 20 cows. In practice a slightly smaller sum would 
be received because of the mechanical losses of fat in handlins;. 

If the same milk were sold at $1.50 per hundred it would 
bring $7.50, or 5-i cents less than in the selling of sweet cream 
and 34 cents more than in selling butter fat. 

If butter be made on the farm from the same milk there 




j^h 

Fig. 120. — Cooperative creameries make dairying profitable. 

will be made about 21 pounds. If this is sold at 30 cents per 
pound the sum of $6.30 will be realized. To this amount should 
be added the value of the skim milk and the buttermilk remain- 
ing, which will be about 480 pounds. This will be worth about 
$1.92, or a total of $8.22. 

Summarizing results we see that 500 pounds of 3.6 per cent 
milk sold in the four different ways bring the following results : 

Milk will bring in $7.50 

Sweet cream will bring in 8.04 

Butter fat will bring in 7.16 

Butter will bring in 8.22 



362 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING 

In addition to the figures given there must always be taken 
into account the equipment and labor cost of caring for and de- 
livering to market the commodities. Where cooperative cream- 
eries are organized a satisfactory method of marketing is estab- 
lished (Fig. 120). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where should farm butter making be practiced? 

2. How should cream be held while collecting enough to churn? How cold? 

3. What is churning? 

4. Tell how to get a wooden churn ready for use. 

5. When and how is butter colored? 

6. How long should it take to churn? 

7. When should the churning be stopped? 

8. Why and how is salt added? 

9. Why and how is butter "worked"? 

10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the earthen jar and the 

one-pound print as forms of packing for market? 

11. How may difficult churning on the farm in winter be overcome? 

12. What is meant by overrun in butter making? 

16. Under what conditions will unsalted butter keep as well as salted? 

14. What causes light-colored streaks or wavy marbling in butter? 

15. Upon what points is butter scored? 



CHAPTER XXXII 

TESTS NECESSARY IN CREAMERIES 

The butter fat test is naturally the most important (Chapter 
XXVIII, yet the j)roper conduct of any creamery includes sev- 
eral others as well (Fig. 121). 

The acid test is a method of determining the quantity of 
acid in or degree of sourness of a cream by the use of an alkali 
solution. This is made by dissolving 4 grams of caustic 
(KOH) in 1000 c.c, pure water. This is a simple titration of 
an alkali solution of known strength against a known amount 
of sour cream of unknown acid strength in the presence of 
phenolphthalein as an indicator, two or three drops being used. 
So long as the mixture of cream and alkali solution remains 
white the acid is in excess. When the acid is killed the whole 
mixture turns pink. If 17.6 c.c. of cream be taken as sample a 
normal acidity would require the us© of about 12 c.c. of the alkali 
solution, which would indicate the presence of about 0.61 per 
cent acid. The fonnula usually emjjloyed in the determination 
of acid is that devised by Dr. Manns : 

c.c. alkali X .009 ^ , __ . f -a 

-, J- X 100 = per cent or acid. 

c.c. sample used 

The lime water test for acid is cheaper and easier of opera- 
tion than the Manns and sufficiently accurate when used on sour 
creams. The lime water is made by putting a quantity of quick 
or air-slacked lime in any convenient jar, covering with water, 
stirring and letting stand for sixty hours or more in order that 
the water shall have taken up all the lime possible. When the 
solution has reached its condition of constant strength the clear 
liquid should be poured or drawn off into a separate bottle and 
more water added to the lime and stirred for a later usage. To 
make the test 17.6 c.c. of sour cream are then measured into a 

363 



364 



TESTS NECESSARY IN CREAMERIES 



white cup and the rinsings of the pipette added to the cream in 
the cup. Three or four drops of phenoilphthalcin indicator are 
then added to the sample. The lime water is then added from a 
graduated cylinder or a burette until a delicate permanent pink 
color is reached. So long as the mixture remains colorless, acid 




Fig. 121. — Dairy School students checking up their work by means of the Babcock test. 

predominates. When a constant pink color appears it mav be 
judged that the free acid has been destroyed by the lime water. 
The quantity of lime water used may then be read from the 
cylinder. The amount of acid in the cream will be indicated by 



TESTS NECESSARY IN CREAMERIES 365 

dividing the number of cubic centimeters of lime water re- 
quired for neutralization by 5. Thus : 

c.c. lime water 1 , ■ , 

_ X TK = per cent oi acid. 

o lU 

Thus, if a cream be so sour as to require 30 c.c. of saturated 
lime water to neutralize the acid in 17.6 c.c. of cream, we have 

30 

-p- ^ 6, or 0.60 per cent acid. The lime water test will not work 

on sweet milk or cheese making, but is of value in farm or 
creamery butter making. 

The moisture test is used to determine the amount of 
moisture in finished butter and its use is highly important, espe- 
cially in preventing the incorporation of an illegal quantity of 
water. Butter must contain some water to dissolve the salt and 
to prevent an oily taste. This is accomplished by about 14 or 
15 per cent moisture. The law in many states and a ruling of 
the Internal Revenue Department of the Federal Government 
make a butter illegal if it contains 16 per cent or more of 
moisture. 

The test is made by warming a carefully taken sample and 
mixing it into a paste and then carefully weighing out into an 
aluminum cup 10 grams or 20 gTams, according to test used. 
The sample is then heated slowly over an alcohol lamp or 
other flame until the water is entirely expelled from the sample. 
The complete absence of moisture is indicated by a slight brown- 
ing of the sample. The sample is then re-weighed. The per- 
centage amount of water originally present is shown by the 
percentage amount of loss occasioned by drjdng. The apparatus 
for making this test is not expensive and it is highly important 
that it be used regularly in creamery butter-making. 

Salt Test. — The salt test now usually employed is that de- 
vised by Mr. Gray of the Federal Dairy Division. The 
solution used is one made by dissolving 5.81 grams silver 
nitrate in 2000 c.c. pure water. The indicator used is potassium 
chromate. Ten grams of butter to be tested are weighed 
into a flask, dissolved in hot water and made up to 500 c.c, 
50 c.c. of this solution is then pipetted out and discharged into 



366 SALT TEST 

a wliite porcelain or enamel vessel. Two or three drops of 
potassium chromate indicator are then added to the solution. 
The silver nitrate solution is then added from a burette until 
the sample assumes a reddish-brown color. Each cc. of silver 
nitrate solution used will represent 0.1 per cent of salt. Thus 
25.5 cc. of solution used would indicate the presence of 2.55 
per cent salt in the sample. The use of a salt test is essential 
to uniformity of product 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the purpose of the acid test in butter making? 

2. How is it operated? 

3. How may lime water be used in the place of other neutralizers? 

4. How is the test for moisture in butter operated? 

5. Explain the use of the salt test. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
FARM DAIRY CHEESE (GOUDA)* 

There are sold in America probably a hundred or more 
varieties of cheese. Although by far the greater portion, with 
respect to quantity, is made here, the manifold kinds are largely 
imported from Europe, chiefly from Switzerland, Italy, France 
and Gennany. 

All cheese may be divided into two great classes, that made 
from fresh sweet milk and that made from milk which has 
become, or is made to become, slightly acid. The American 
cheese, commonly sold simply as cheese, is of the acid curd 
kind, while most of the imported cheeses are of the sweet curd 
group. The Gouda is of Holland origin and is one of the sweet 
curd cheeses. It is, therefore, more closely related to the Brick 
and the Swiss than to our common cheese. 

The ordinary process by which our American cheese is made 
in factories is not applicable to farm dairy cheese making, be- 
cause it requires too much time, and is so complicated that it 
requires years of practice to become sufficiently familiar with 
the varying conditions in which milk comes to the vat. 

Process of Making, — The various changes that take place in 
milk nearly all develop in the milk drawn in the evening and 
kept over until the following morning. So if milk is made into 
cheese immediately after it is drawn, no difficulty will be ex- 
perienced, and by employing a simple and short method of manu- 
facture, anyone at all accustomed to handling milk can make 
a uniformly good cheese with the appliances found in any well- 
regulated farm home. 

The best time to make farm dairy cheese is immediately 
after milking. The milk should first b© poured from one vessel 
to another in some locality where the air is pure and fresh, 
raising the vessel from which the milk is poured high, so the 

* Adapted in part from Minnesota Circular, " Farm Dairy Cheese." 

367 



368 FARM DAIRY CHEESE (GOUDA) 

air call pass tliroiigli the inilk and carry off the animal odor. 
The milk is then poured into the vat, or if no vat is available a 
large wash boiler may be used. It is not necessary to use cheese 
color, but if it is desired that the cheese look rich about a tea- 
spoonful of cheese color to sixteen gallons of milk may be used. 
The color is best mixed by means of a large dipper, filling it 
half full of milk, mixing the color thoroughly in it and stirring- 
it into the milk. 

At this point the milk is heated, if necessary, to make certain 
it has a temperature of 86 to 81) degrees. It may be heated 
by setting it on the stove for a short time, stirring continually. 
Hot water must not be added to warm milk, it retards greatly 
the rennet action. The rennet extract at the rate of one ounce 
to a hundred pounds or twelve gallons of milk is now added. 
It should first have been diluted in about ten times its bulk of 
cold water before adding. It must be well stirred into the milk. 
The milk should begin to curdle in from ten to twelve minutes. 

If rennet tablets are used to curdle the milk it is best to 
use one small tablet for every five gallons of milk, or one large 
tablet to twenty-five gallons of milk. Small tablets are about 
the size of a dime ; large tablets are about the size of a silver 
quarter of a dollar. The rennet may be procured from any 
creamery supply house. 

To add the rennet, if tablets are used, the required amount 
is first dissolved in a small quantity of cold w^ater and then 
poured into the milk. Great care should be taken not to have 
the milk at a temperature below 86 degrees when the rennet is 
put in, and it should not be above 90 degrees afterward. The 
milk must now be stirred gently for two or three minutes, then 
let stand until the curd is firm enough to cut. To ascertain when 
the curd is ready for cutting the index finger is inserted into the 
milk at an angle of forty-five degrees until the thumb nail 
touches the milk, a slight notch is then made in the curd with 
the thumb, then the finger is gently raised; if the curd breaks 
clean across it without many flakes remaining on the finger it 
is ready for cutting. With a little ]>ractice one mil soon know 
when the curd mass is ready to cut. 



PROCESS OF MAKING 



369 



For cutting, regular cheese kuives are best, one with hori- 
zontal blades and one with perpendicular blades. In case it is 
intended to make onlj a few cheeses a wire bread toaster or a 
coil of clean hay wire may be used, the wires being about half 
an inch apart. The cut is first made lengthwise, then crosswise 
of the vat or boiler until the curd is cut into cubes about the 
size of small kernels of corn. 

After the cutting is finished the curd is gently stirred by 
hand for about three minutes, then heated slowly to. 98 or 100 
degrees, constantly stirring gently while the curd is being heated ; 
the curd is kept at this temperature for about forty minutes. 
To tell when the curd is sufficiently cooked a handful is squeezed 
gently, held for a moment, then the hand is opened and if the 
curd falls apart it is firm enough. As soon as the curd is suffi- 
ciently cooked the whey is drawn off and the mold is filled by 
taking a double handful at a time and pressing gently into the 
mold, continuing until the mold is full and well rounded up. 




Fig. 122. — A simple cheese press for farm dairy cheese making. 

The cheese curd is then taken out of the mold and turned 
upside down and replaced The cover is put on and the whole is 
put into tlie press, which may be a sdniple, old-fashioned lever 
press, illustrated in the accompanying cut (Fig. 122). The 
stick should be about twelve feet long. A broken wagon tongTie 
or fence rail answers the purpose very well. A pail containing 
a few cobble stones will answer for a weight. Regiilar Gouda 
molds are best, but any tin or wooden receptacle will answer 
if small holes are made in it to permit the w4iey to escape. The 
cheese should be from eight to ten inches in diameter and about 
tliree or four inches high. The box upon which the mold is to 
b© placed is set about three feet from a wall, post or tree on 

24 



370 FARM DAIRY CHEESE (GOUDA) 

which a slat is nailed, "under which the end of the stick is placed. 
A board block about six inches in diameter is set on the mold, 
on this the stick is rested. Full pressure is not applied at first, 
but the pail is hung about half way between the mold and the 
end of the stick. The cheese remains a few hours in the press 
and is then taken out and dressed. 

To dress a cheese it is first put into warm water and a piece 
of cheesecloth about six inches wide and long eninigh to go around 
the cheese is wrapped smoothly around the cheese and folded 
down over the sides; then a cap is put on each side. The cheese 
is then returned to the mold. Both are put under the press, 
moving the pail to the end of the stick. The cheese is left in 
the press for about twelve hours, then taken out and salted. 

The cheese may be either dry-salted or brine-salted. Brine- 
salting is the better way. A solution of salt and water is made 
as strong as it can possibly be made; the cheese is put in this and 
salt is sprinkled on the exposed surface. The cheese is left in 
this for forty-eight hours, being turned every twelve hours. 
When salted sufficiently long tlie cheese should be removed from 
the brine, stripped of cloths, wiped dry and laid on a cellar shelf. 
After about two or three days, when the cheese has become fairly 
dry on the outside, it should be dipped in hot paraffin. This is 
done to kill all mold spores that have lodged on the moist surface 
and also to keep the cheese moist by preventing the evaporation 
of water. 

The temperature best adapted for curing is from 55 to 65 
degrees. The cheese will be ready for use in from two to four 
months. The lighter the cheese is salted the sooner will it be 
ready for use, and the more the curd is cooked the slower it will 
be in ripening and the longer it will keep. 

Yield, Cost and Value. — Cheese removes from the milk most 
of the casein and fat but practically none of the sugar and albu- 
men. Yet a yield of cheese equal to about 10 per cent of the 
weight of the milk may be expected, because in the cheese there 
must and will be some water. A hundred pounds of milk test- 
ing 3.7 per cent fat will yield about 10 pounds of cheese. The 
butter value of the milk at 30 cents per pound for fat would be 



QUESTIONS 371 

about $1.11 and the skim milk about 20 cents more, making a 
total of about $1.30 per hundred. The 10 pounds of cheese 
would be worth, if purchased, about 25 cents per pound or $2.50, 
and the whey about 10 cents more, making about $2.60; or, in 
other words, the cheese for the farm home may be made at home 
for less than half the usual retail price. 

A gallon of milk weighs about 8.6 pounds and will make 
about 0.85 pound of cheese. Therefore, to make a cheese weigh- 
ing from six to seven pounds, seven to eight gallons of milk will 
be required. Home-made GrO'uda has a food value equal to 
American cheese and greater tlian many imported varieties. 
With a little experience cheese may be made during May and 
October to supply the table the year around. 

QUESTIONS 

1. To what class of cheese does the Gouda belong? 

2. How many pounds of cheese will eight gallons of milk make? 

3. At butter i)rices for fat in milk what will farmmadte cheese cost per 

pound ? 

4. How may a constant supply for tlie home table be most conveniently 

made? 

5. Why is cheese not more generally made on farms? , 



CHAPTER XXXIV 



COTTAGE CHEESE 



Food Value — Cost. — C^ottage cheese, made from skim milk, 
is one of the most healthful and economical as well as tasty 
foods which can be provided for the farm table. The usually 
calculated value of skim milk for stock feeding is about 25 cents 
a hundred. One hundred pounds of skim milk will produce 
from 12 to 14 pounds of cottage cheese, thus entailing a cost 
of about 2 cents per pound. While such cheese is about two- 
thirds water, which would advance the cost of the solid sub- 
stances eaten to about 6 cents per pound, it must not be forgotten 
that ordinary meat costing from 15 to 25 cents per pound is 
likewise about two-thirds water; also that even at 6 cents per 
pound for the solid substance of cottage cheese the fact that it 
is rich in protein, making for muscular gTO\\i;h, gives it, in 
reality, a liiglier value than cereals which could be bought at 
the same price per pound. 

Method of Making, — The making of cottage cheese or pot 
cheese, though simple, is controlled by certain principles which 
make for quality. Flavor is the quality first to be considered. 
This can be controlled only by governing the character of the 
milk used. While not a very sensitive product cottage cheese 
is tlie most tasty when clean sweet milk is properly soured at a 
temperature of about 70 to 75 degrees F. A higher temperature, 
one ranging in the neighborhood of UO degrees, is liable to pro- 
duce gassy fermentations and foul odors, and a temperature lower 
than 70 degrees retards the growth of the bacteria which produce 
the acid, and thus causes a waste of time, and if too' cold the 
souring process can scarcely continue at all. At times, too, it 
is necessary to add to the skim milk to be soured a little starter 
in the nature of clean, sharp l)uttennilk or a small quantity of 
plain milk which has previously become sour. If the milk be- 
comes too sour the tendency is to produce a hard, dry, sawdust- 
like product, one not usually relished. When the milk has 
372 



FINISHING 373 

curdled, not too thick, it should be cut into little squares or 
cubes by means of an ordinary knife or a wire bread toaster may 
be used if a larger quantity is being produced. This done, the 
temperature of the entire mass should be raised, either by heat- 
ing on the stove or by pouring hot water into the curd mass. 
This is done for the purpose of " cooking " or hardening the 
curd. Water should not be added when the heating can be done 
the other way, as it removes flavor. The temperature should be 
raised slowly with frequent stirring until a temperature of from 
95 to 98 degrees has been reached. The lower temperature to 
be used would be with very sour milk, the higher with milk not 
so sour. If, however, the milk is really not sour enough when 
the heating is done it will produce a rubbery mass, one not 
usually favored. The effect of high acid is to produce dry hard 
curd ; the effect of high heat is to produce rubl)ery curd ; the 
effect of long-continued heat is to produce a hard curd. The 
total time of cooking will require from twenty-five to forty 
minutes. At this point experience only can indicate just when 
to stop the cooking process. The curd should be fairly firm but 
not hard. The whey is removed most easily by pouring the 
entire mass into a cheeseclotli bag, and permitting it to hang 
until tlioroughly drained. If more rapid work is desired a 
press, such as used for extracting cider from apples or fat from 
suet, will be found serviceable. 

Finishing. — After tlie moisture has been fairly well, but not 
wholly drained or pressed out, the curd may be thoroughly 
worked up by means of a ladle, or if rather firm, bv hand. Many, 
however, prefer that tlie curd remain in large flakes and lumps 
rather than in fine form, in which case the curd should be cut in 
large squares, stirred carefully, and mixed with a silver fork 
gently. During this mixing process the salt should be added, and 
if desired, a small quantity of pepper, preferably white pepper. 
At this point cream may be added to further increase the tasty 
quality and food value of the cheese. When thoroughly mixed 
to an even consistency it may be made up into little patty-cake 
balls by rolling in the hands or, if desired especially for market, 
may be printed the same as butter into pound prints, and 



374 COTTAGE CHEESE 

wrapped in parchment or paraffin paper to prevent its drying 
too rapidly. In this form it may or may not, according to the 
local demands, be inserted into a paraffined butter carton, where 
it will preserve its quality for a somewhat longer time than if 
left more or less exposed. 

Short Lived. — Cottage cheese is short lived. For best re- 
sults it should be consumed the same day that it is made. If 
held, it should be in a cold refrigerator to prevent excessive 
souring, and even under favorable conditions, cannot be ex- 
pected to retain its quality longer than from two to four days. 

Skim milk will yield from l-i to 16 pounds of cottage cheese 
per hundred pounds of milk, and when the cheese is seasoned, 
and a small quantity of cream added, and when put on the 
market in attractive form, usually brings 10 cents per pound. 

Farmers' wives generally should make more use of cottage 

cheese on their home tables and some are so situated that they 

could earn nice pin money by putting a tasty cheese on the local 

market. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the food value and cost per pound of cottage cheese? 

2. What is the effect of high acid on condition of curd? 

3. What is the effect of high temperature on texture of finished cheese? 

4. How long will cottage cheese keep its quality if kept cold? 



CHAPTER XXXV 



ICE CREAM 

Ice cream is one of the most universally favored desserts 
in America. It is sold in most candy, fruit and drug stores 
and served at practically all hotels in this country, yet is little 
known in most European cities. The ocean liners serve ice 
cream to the passengers in all parts of the world, yet the ice 
cream is practically all secured in the United States and stored 
oven for months on the vessel. Ice cream likewise is a favorite 
dish in the home, where large quantities are made in small lots. 

Artificial cooling in a simple way has been known for cen- 
turies and the making of a frozen food somewhat resembling 
our ice cream has been practiced for several hundred years. 
But the ice cream industry as kno^\^l to-day started in 1852 in 
Baltimore. 

The making of ice cream and shipping it even long dis- 
tances is now a well-organized industry which consumes about 
50,000,000 pounds of butter fat annually. 

The formula used is important, but little more so than the 
method of freezing and storing. For best results there should 
not be to exceed 141/4 P^r cent sugar in the finished article. This 
is attained by adding one part sugar for every six parts of liquid 
or one pint sugar to three quarts cream, for a six-quart freezer. 
For a gallon freezer the following formula has been found good : 



Rich Formula 
2 qts. 20 per cent cream 
Va pint sugar 
Vanilla to taste 



Children's Formula 
1 qt. 20 per cent cream 
1 qt. skim milk 
Vs pint sugar 
Vanilla to taste. 



If eggs are used the whole mass should be cooked into a 
custard. This produces a very rich tasting dish but one that 
is rather expensive. In general commercial trade no eggs are 
used. If chocolate, coffee, or caramel flavors are desired in 

375 



376 ICE CREAM 

addition, tliese flavors may be added on top of the vanilla with 
no ill effects, in fact chocolate ice cream is better if there be some 
vanilla present. 

Condensed milk is coming to be very much used in ice cream 
to give body and smoothness. For home Sunday dinners it 
might not be worth while to use condensed milk, but for any 
more formal occasion where continued trade is sought it cer- 
tainly does not pay to do without it. 

The addition of more fat, i.e., richer cream, will not take 
the place of the smooth body of condensed milk. If the sweet- 
ened variety is used allowance must be made for the sugar in 
it. If the unsweetened, sterilized, canned kind be used, care 
needs be taken to use not over 10 to 15 per cent of it, lest the 
cooked taste be too pronounced. If condensed milk be used it 
should take the place of an equal amount of cream so that the 
sugar proportion will remain constant. 

Formula With Condensed Milk 
1 qt. 20 per cent cream 
11/2 pints whole milk 
V2 pint condensed milk. 
V3 pint sugar 
A'anilla to taste. 

This will produce a smooth ice cream which will test about 
12 or 13 per cent fat and have better body and standing-up 
ability than when no condensed milk is used. 

Ice cream powders are in most cases simply mixtures in 
various proportions of some East Indian gum with powdered 
sugar. Rice flour and starch are soinetimes used, but are 
not to be recommended. This powder is used by first being 
thoroughly mixed with the dry sugar and later the sugar mixture 
is beaten into the cream. In this way the powder helps to " dry 
out " the ice cream and cause it to remain in mass form. 

Gelatin is now used in nearly all commercial ice creams to 
prevent the formation of coarse spines or slivers of ice when the 
cream stands a few days. It is used by first dissolving it in hot 
water and pouring into the cream while hot, stirring vigorously 



THE FREEZING OF ICE CREAM 377 

the while. A teaspoonfiil of any table gelatin dissolved in half 
a cup of water will suffice for a gallon of ice cream. 

Gum tragacanth, a vegetable gum, is used but is not as 
strong to prevent crystallization as gelatin and is more used to 
dry out the mix, to produce a compact meaty mass. This is 
used in the foi-m of a di-y powder, preferably mixed with finely 
powdered sugar to aid distribution. 

The freezing of ice cream is an easy matter provided too 
much sugar has not been used. Water freezes at 32 degrees F., 
milk and cream at 31 degrees, and cream in which 14 per cent 
sugar has been dissolved, at 28 degrees. If more sugar be 
added the freezing temperature will be yet more depressed. 
Water-ice and sherbets freeze with more difficulty than ice 
creams because carrying more sugar. 

The best simple trick in the matter of quick and easy freez- 
ing is to pour cold water in among the ice lumps and salt grains 
before starting to turn (Fig. 123). 

When the mix is in the freezer can and all is adjusted, cracked 
ice should be added to the freezer tub first, until about one-third 
full, salt is then scattered over the ice, more ice is then added 
to fill the tub nearly full, and salt again scattered on top of the 
ice. The ice should not be packed about the can. At this point 
in the process the cold water is added until it flows out the 
safety hole on the side. The first thing noticed as a result of 
adding the water is that it will turn much easier than without it, 
and second, it will freeze in a fraction of the time often re- 
quired in the dry ice-salt method. Moreover, since the mix is 
comparatively warm when added and must be cooled to about 
30 to 29 degrees before the swell can take place, it is useless to 
turn rapidly at first. Butter lumps are formed by turning too 
fast at first and churning it. The freezing process may 
even be done on time schedule. During tlie first seven minutes 
after the water has been added the freezer crank should be 
turned rapidly, two or three revolutions, every half-minute to 
keep the walls clear and prevent the dasher from setting. After 
seven minutes of cooling the mix will be nearly ready to freeze 
and will be cool enough to be viscid. In this condition it will 



378 



ICE CREAM 



retain a part of the air beaten into it by the rapid turning which 
continues from the seventh minute until the ice cream is frozen. 
The whole process of freezing with water as described will not 
take more than twelve or thirteen minutes and may be done in 
ten minutes with a one^ or two-gallon freezer and in tliirteen 
minutes with a ten-gallon freezer. 

The quantity of salt to use to get quick freezing need not be 
more than one-tenth of the amount of ice. Full value of the 



drnd 




Fig. 123. — Illustrating the addition of water to the salt ice mixture to hasten the freezing 

of the ice cream. 

salt is secured by putting it at the middle and at the top of the 
ice so it will work on the ice as it trickles downward. 

To freeze ice cream in ten minutes be sure the mix is not 
too sweet and then pour cold water in among the lumps of ice. 

Holding ice cream is best done by packing solid in can and 
then dry-packing the can, using a coarse salt that will not dis- 
solve too rapidly. If for any reason the ice cream melts and 
then is rehardened without agitation it will not be edible on 
account of spines of ice which have formed. Melting and re- 
freezing is the cause of coarse spiny ice cream. The whole mass 
may be put into a freezer and refrozen, however. 



QUESTIONS 379 

If several batches are to be frozen in quick succession the 
holding can should be well packed in ice and salt in advance. 
A common " shot-gun " milk can set in a tub or half barrel 
makes a very good holding can. By transferring the freshly 
made batch to the iced can any desired amount may be made 
even with a small freezer. 

The " swell " in ice cream is due to the incorporation of air 
into the cream just as in whipped cream or beaten egg. A good 
swell is 100 per cent, based on the cream, i.e., not considering 
tlie sugar, or 85 per cent based on the volume of total mix. A 
better way is to figure by weight. A gallon of market ice cream 
should not weigh over 5.2 pounds to the gallon, and 5 pounds is 
enough for quality and profit. 

QUESTIONS 
1. How much ice cream is consumed per capita in the United States 

annually ? 
2'. How long has ice cream making Ijeon carried on in a wholesale way? 

3. Why and how is condensed milk used in ice cream making? 

4. Why and how are ice cream powders used? 

5. Why and how is gelatin used? 

6. How may ice cream be frozen in ten to twelve minutes willi a 1 to 10 

use of salt and ice? 

7. How may the ice cream made he heat stored wliile more is being frozen? 

8. Why is a reasonable "swell" desirable in ice cream? 



PART VII 

MARKET MILK 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
MARKET MILK 

By market milk is meant tliat milk wliicli is consumed in 
the form of milk, chiefly in cities and towns. 

The importance of this phase of the dairy industry has not 
been fully appreciated by the producers of milk, by -the con 
sumers, or by the state institutions giving instruction in thi' 
various phases of dairy husbandry. From government figiirfes 
it appears that one-third of all the milk produced by the nearly 
twenty-two million dairy cows in the United States, is sent to 
town to be used as milk, cream or condensed milk, the remain- 
ing two-thirds being made into butter (58 per cent) or cheese 
(8 per cent). Just what portion of the third used as market 
milk is sold as cream and what portion as milk has not been 
sho^\^l, but from figures at hand it would seem that more than 
half of the fat sold in the two has been sold in milk. Conse- 
quently, therefore, about 20 per cent of the total milk flow finds 
its way to the consumer as milk. Although this quantity would 
give to each individual less than a quart a day it is well known 
that adults, as a rule, consume small quantities of milk, and that 
the major portion purchased in homes is used as food for infants 
and young children. In this connection it is more than of in- 
terest to note that fully two-thirds of the 2,250,000 infants in 
the United States, or 1,500,000, are being raised wholly, or 
very largely, upon the milk of the cow rather than at the breast. 
The likelihood of death during the first year of infants so reared 
is also known to be about nine times as great as those nourished 
on mother's milk. It is evident, therefore, that the proper pro- 
duction, care and use of the 20 per cent used as infant food is 
of more vital consequence than the remaining 80 per cent which 
is being consumed by adults as cream, butter or cheese. Since 
this minor quantity is of major value, measured in consequences, 
every milk producer should know more exactly what the conse- 
quences of inferior milk are. It has been demonstrated that 

383 



384 MARKET MILK 

where milk can be secured clean, fresh and from healthy cows 
the mortality rate drops to about two to one, showing conclu- 
sively that it is not cow's milk per se, but rather the condition 
of the cow's milk which causes the trouble. 

Factors Influencing Quality.— Practically all unfavorable 
conditions or qualities of milk can be related to one of the fol- 
lowing causes : 

A. The Cow May he Sich. — If she is, her milk should be 
considered as also out of condition and undesirable as human 
food. Green corn fed in excessive amounts in late summer or 
early autumn will induce looseness on the part of the cow, which 
condition will be promptly reflected in the child consuming the 
milk. On the other hand, dry hay and fodder which bring 
about a constipated condition in the cow tend to induce similar 
condition on the part of the child. Some feeds such as com 
silage made from mature corn or roots should be fed to cows 
in winter from which milk is sold for infant feeding, since these 
feeds tend strongly to keep the cow in best physical condition. 

B. Strong flavored feeds, such as rye or winter wheat pasture 
or the various wild weeds that spring up in spring or autumn 
in various places, also produce a milk of inferior flavor, though 
not particularly detrimental if consumed. 

C. Air which contains foul odors of any sort may be the 
source of disagreeable flavors in milk. Milk, therefore, should 
be removed from the stable promptly and kept in a sweet, fresh 
atmosphere, in the milk house. This class of trouble is, however, 
of small consequence compared with the condition of the cow 
and especially when compared with the detrimental effects of 
bacteria. 

D. Bacteria are microscopic plants which grow under a 
great variety of conditions all about us. By far the greater 
number are of no consequence to us so far as our health is 
concerned (Fig. 124). Milk produced in the winter time in 
the ordinary stable may contain a dozen or two varieties of 
bacteria, yet only two or three kinds will be found present 
capable of modifying the milk itself to any appreciable degree. 
The universally common milk organism is the bacillus which 
produces lactic acid. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING QUALITY 385 

This is particularly true in summer when the cows are on 
pasture. This germ does not produce heat-resisting spores and 
is therefore easily killed by high temperature. Although this 
organism is the one which sours milk and is so abundant in 
buttermilk, which is a good beverage for both adults and infants, 
it does not follow that a medium number in milk supposed to 
be sweet would be beneficial to the child. Milk fed to young 
animals, whether child, chicken, pig or calf, should be thoroughly 
sweet or fully sour. 

The second most common class of bacteria found in milk is 
that known as the Colon group', " Bacilli Coli." There are 



9 

90^ ^o oo ° o 












9> o , .^^; Ifo- o 
^*o"o do- 

O o '^OOo, 

Fig. 124. — Milk as it appears under the microscope. The clear, round fat globules 
are interspersed with bacteria. Note relative smallness of the germs, also that the bacteria 
are grouped in clusters. 

several varieties of this class of organisms. Some have power 
of free movement, others have not, but nearly all of them have 
the power of forming within themselves spores so resistant to 
heat that even boiling may not destroy them. They also pro- 
duce gas while growing. It is the distending effect of the gas 
produced by the growth of these bacteria which cauSes the pain 
to infants suffering from cholera infantum and similar intes- 
tinal disturbances. The natural habitat or home of this class 
of bacteria is the intestinal tract of all higher animals, espe- 
cially cows, and they gain entrance into the milk through par- 
ticles of manure which accidentally fall into the pail during 
milking. Many other methods of entrance are possible, e.g., 
from poorly washed pails, or even nursing bottle and nipple. 
25 



386 



MARKET MILK 



Ropj or stringy milk, if uot in this condition when drawn 
from the cow, in which case garget would be indicated, is also 
the work of certain microscopic plants which feed largely upon 
the sugar of the milk and reduce it to the ropy or stringy 
character. This complaint is most common in the warm weather 
of summer while cows are standing in stagnant pools of water 
in the pasture. Ropy milk is not particularly injurious, but 



Score Card for Milk 
United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Dairy Division. 

Place 

Class Exhibit No 



Exhibitor, . 
Address, . . 



(Signed) . 



ITEM. 


PERFECT 
8COBE. 


SCORE 
ALLOWED. 


REMARKS. 


Bacteria 


35 

25 

10 

10 

10 

5 

5 




j Bacteria found per \ 


Flavor and odor 




\ cubic centimeter / 

/ Cowy, Bitter, Feed, \ 

\ Flat, Strong, / 


Visible dirt 




Fat 




Per cent found 


Solids not fat 




Per cent found , 


Aciditv 





Per cent found 


Bottle and cap 




[Cap 








Bottle 


Total 


100 













Date, . 



.,19 



Judge. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING QUALITY 



387 



Directions for Scoring. 
BACTERIA PER CUBIC CENTIMETER— PERFECT SCORE, 35. 



Points 

Under 500 35.0 

500- 1,000 34.9 

1,001- 1,500 34.8 

1,501- 2,000 34.7 

2,001- 2,500 34.6 

2,501- 3,000 34.5 

3,001- 3,500 34.4 

3,501- 4,000 34.3 

4,001- 5,000 34.0 

5,001- 6,000 33.8 

6,001- 7,000 33.6 

7,001- 8,000 33.4 

8,001- 9,000 33.2 

9,001-10,000 33.0 

10,001-11,000 32.8 

11,001-12,000 32.6 

12,001-13,000 32.4 

13,001-14,000 32.2 

14,001-15,000 32.0 

15,001-20,000 31.0 

20,001-25,000 30.0 



Points 

25,001- 30,000 29.0 

30,001- 35,000 28.0 

35,001- 40,000 27.0 

40,001- 45,000 26.0 

45,001- 50,000 25 

50,001- 55,000 24.0 

55,001- 60,000 23.0 

60,001- 65.000 22 

65,001- 70,000 21.0 

70,001- 75,000 20.0 

75,001- 80,000 19.0 

80,001- 85,000 18.0 

85,001- 90,000 17.0 

90,001- 95,000 16.0 

95,001-100,000 15.0 

100,001-120,000 12.5 

120,001-140,000 10.0 

140,001-160,000 7.5 

160,001-180,000 5.0 

180,001-200,000 2.5 

Above 200,000 0.0 



Note. — When the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter exceeds the local legal limit 
the score shall be 0. 

FLAVOR AND ODOR— PERFECT SCORE, 25. 
Deductions for disagreeable or foreign odor or flavor should be made according to con- 
ditions found. When possible to recognize the cause of the difficulty it should be described 
under Remarks. 

VISIBLE DIRT— PERFECT SCORE, 10. 
Examination for visible dirt should be made only after the milk has stood for some time 
undisturbed in any way. Raise the bottle carefully in its natural, upright position, without 
tipping, until higher than the head. Observe the bottom of the milk with the naked eye 
or by the aid of a reading glass. The presence of the slightest movable speck makes a 
perfect score impossible. Further deductions should be made according to the amount of 
dirt found. When possible the nature of the dirt should be described under Remarks. 

FAT IN MILK— PERFECT SCORE, 10. 



Points 

4.0 per cent and over 10 

3.9 per cent 9.8 

3.8 per cent 9.6 

3.7 per cent 9.4 

3.6 per cent 9.2 

3.5 per cent 9 

3.4 per cent 8 

3.3 per cent 7 

Note. — When the per cent of fat is less than the local legal limit the score shall be 0. 
SOLIDS NOT FAT— PERFECT SCORE. 10. 



Points 

3.2 per cent 6 

3.1 per cent 5 

3.0 per cent 4 

2.9 per cent 3 

2.8 per cent 2 

2.7 per cent 1 

Less than 2.7 per cent 



Points 

8.7 per cent, and over 10 

8.6 per cent 9 

8.5 per cent 8 

8.4 per cent 7 

8.3 per cent 6 

8.2 per cent 5 

Note.— When the per cent of solids not fat is less than the local legal limit the score shall be 0. 

ACIDITY— PERFECT SCORE, 5. 
Points 



Points 

8.1 per cent 4 

8.0 per cent 3 

7.9 per cent 2 

7.8 per cent 1 

Less than 7.8 per cent 



Points 

0.23 per cent 2 

0.24 per cent 1 

Over 0.24 per cent 



0.2 per cent and less 5 

0.21 per cent 4 

0.22 per cent 3 

BOTTLE AND CAP— PERFECT SCORE, 5. 
Bottles should be made of clear glass and free from attached' metal parts. Caps should 
be sealed in their place with hot paraffin, or both cap and top of bottle covered with parch- 
ment paper or other protection against water and dirt. Deduct for tinted glass, attached 
metal parts, unprotected or leaky caps, partially filled bottles, or other conditions permitting 
contamination of milk or detracting from the appearance of the package. j 



388 MARKET MILK 

the ropy condition is usually accompanied by a bitter or foul 
flavor. 

Bitter milk m.ay be either the result of certain bacteria which 
grow slowly at a temperature of between 40 and 50 dsgrees, 
or it may be due to the physical condition of the cow yieldmg it, 
in which case the bitter taste will be evident the moment it is 
drawn from the udder. This condition often occurs with cows 
that are being overfed on rich protein feeds. 

All that has been said or intimated with regard to the effects 
of dirt germs in the baby's milk holds just as true respecting the 
germs that gain access from a dirty nursing bottle or nipple as 
from the dirty tools of the milkman. Dairymen are often 
blamed when carelessness in the consumer's own home is the 
source of the trouble. A bottle of milk, if set into a pail of 
water in which a chunk of ice is kept floating and the whole 
set into the refrigerator, will keep sweet two or three times as 
long as it will if set merely in the "zoi air of the same ice chest. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliat is meant by market milk? 

2. What per cent of the total amount of milk produced is used as butter, 

as cheese, as milk and cream? 

3. How many babies are there in tlie United States under one year of age? 

4. What per cent and number are bottle fed ? 

5. About what is the proportion of infant mortality between the breast fed 

and the cow's milk fed? 

6. WTiat three classes of factors influence the quality of cow's milk? 

7. How is milk scored? 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

THE ADULTERATION OF MILK 

Because milk was for so long a time sold by the measure, 
with no easy, accurate way of testing for quality, it is not sur- 
prising that some men either skimmed or watered the milk they 
sold. Of all forms of adulteration these two are most common 
and in general most easily detected. . 

Chemical analysis of the milk to detect adulterations is not 
necessary since it has been discovered that the specific gravity 
(weight per volume) of milk bears a definite and constant rela- 
tion to the amount of solids contained in it. 

The Quevenne lactometer, which is the chief insuument 
used in the detection of skimming or watering, is a glass tube 
filled ■s\ath air, weighted to float in milk, and gTaduated to indi- 
cate the depth to which it sinks. Since any floating object sinks 
until it displaces exactly its weight of liquid in which it is 
floating, the lighter or thinner the milk, the deeper the instru- 
ment will have to sink to balance. 

Influence of Temperature. — Water, milk and most other 
liquids expand and become thinner or less dense upon becoming 
warai, consequently, the milk to be tested must be brought to 
a fixed temperature, 60 degrees or close to it. For every degTee 
in temperature above 60, one- tenth is added to the lactometer 
reading; thus: if the lactometer, L = 81.r), at temperature 64, 
the corrected reading would be 31.9, and likewise for every 
degree below 60, one-tenth is subtracted from the lactometer 
reading, thus if L = 32.'i temperature 55, the correct reading 
would be 31.9. This rule for the correction does not hold true 
above 70 degrees nor below 50 degrees, and preferably should 
not be worked above 65 degrees nor below 55 degrees. The 
sample should be brought to within a few degrees of 60 before 
it is tested. 

Influence o£ Air. — On account of the fine bubbles of air or 
other gas in freshly drawn milk, the lactometer cannot be ac- 

389 



390 THE ADULTERATION OF MILK 

ciirately used at once, but the milk should be held for about 
two or three hours to permit it to become of normal weight per 
volume. 

Influence of Preservatives. — To keep milk test-samples from 
souring various chemicals are added to kill the bacteria and 
thereby preserve the sample. Corrosive sublimate or mercuric 
chloride is such heavy stuff that a single small tablet in one 
quart of milk will raise the lactometer reading higher than 
possible for even skim milk. A preservative such as formalde- 
hyde is so nearly of the same weight as milk that it is prefer- 
able where specific gravity determinations are to be made. 

The Use of the Lactometer (Fig. 125). — It has been found 
that the quantity of solids-not-fat is vei*y nearly one-fourth the 
variable portion of the specific gravity figures. For example, 
the specific gravity of milk at 60 degTees varies from 1.029 
with a naturally watery milk, to as high as 1.033 with a milk of 
a medium-testing Jersey, the average being about 1.032. It 
will be noted that the 1.0 portion of the figures is constant, 
while the 29—33 varies. Milk carries from 8 to 8.6 per cent 
solids-not-fat. The percentage amount of the non-fatty portion 
of milk is then but little more than one-fourth these variable 
figures. These figiTres, called lactometer reading, increase, 
therefore, four times as rapidly as the per cent of non-fatty 
solids. The fat in the milk also may be detemiined almost 
wholly by physical means, the Babcock test, rather than by true 
chemical anlysis. 

Since fat has a specific gTavity of 0.90 and skim milk or 
milk serum a specific gravity of 1.036 it follows that the less 
fat any given milk contains the heavier it becomes, and vice 
versa. Also since water-weighs only 1.000 against milk 1.032, 
it follows that any addition of water to milk will lower its 
weight or specific gravity. Therefore, by combining the two, 
skim milk and water, it is possible to dilute a milk and still 
retain its natural specific gravity. 

For this reason it is occasionally necessaiy to combine the 
use of fat test and the lactometer in order to detect adultera- 
tion. Thus, if tlie lactometer reading is higher than nomial and 



THE USE OF THE LACTOMETER 



391 



I 



80 

eo 

Bo 
40 



- 15 




Fig 125.— The lactometer is used for the detection of skimming and watering of milk. 
At temperature 00 degrees F. the lacvometer will read about 31 or 6J.. 



392 THE ADULTERATION OF MILK 

the fat test is lower than normal, the sample has been skimmed ; 
while if the lactometer reading is low and the fat is low the 
sample has been watered, and again if the lactometer reading is 
normal and fat is low, the sample has been both skimmed and 
watered. Thus : 

Lactometer jowl ^^^^^^^ 
t at low J 

Lactometer h^ghj^^^j^^^j 

Lactometer normal j ^ skimmed and watered 

The total food solids of milk may also be determined by the 
"use of the lactometer and Babcock test by the application of 
the fonnnla : Lactometer reading, divided by 4, plus two-tenths 
of the fat, equals solids-not-fat. This may be expressed thus : 

-T^ + 0.2 f. = per cent solids-not-fat 
and 

-^ + 1.2 f. = per cent total solids 

Example : If L = 31.9, temperature 56, corrected L ^ 31.5. 
Then if the Babcock test for the sample reads 3.8 per cent fat 
we have: ?ii* + .2 X 3.8 :==: 8.64 per cent solids-not-fat, and 
8.64 + 3.8 ^= 12.44 per cent total solids. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a lactometer? 

2. What influence on its reading has temperature? Air and preservatives? 

3. What preservative is most desirable when lactometer determinations are 

to be made? When fat only? 

4. How may skimming and watering be detected? 

5. How may the lactometer and fat test be used to determine the food con 

tent of milk? 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARKET MILK— METHODS OF 

SELLING 

The great need for a cleaner, more wholesome milk has 
focused the attention of many physicians, women's clubs, and 
dairymen to this substance, with the result that attempts are 
now being made in various ways, not only to produce some 
milk of vastly superior quality, but also to improve the quality 
of market milk in general. 

The principal kinds as regards treatment or preparation are 
briefly described in this chapter. 

" Loose " milk, so-called, is milk peddled about town in 
large cans from which the quantity desired by the consumer is 
dipped or drawn as needed. This term is used to distinguish 
it from bottled milk. Such bulk milk, sometimes called " dipped 
milk," may be just as clean and wholesome as any other. In 
smaller cities such is usually the case, but in larger centers the 
fact that milk can be sold loose soinewhat more cheaply than 
bottled naturally develops a cheap milk industry in some quarter 
of the city. The inferior grades of milk are more likely to be 
turned off through this channel and if adulterants are used they 
are almost certain to be in such districts. 

Bottled milk is sold in bottles (Fig. 126). It may be 
just as unfit as any other, but is more likely to have been pro- 
duced in a cleaner manner and handled to preserve quality, 
since no one would willingly bestow attention, labor and the 
expense of bottling upon low-grade milk. 

Clarified milk Is milk which has been purified by having 
been passed through a centrifugal clarifier. This is a machine 
very similar to an ordinary cream separator through which 
milk is run for the purpose of abstracting from it the fine 
particles of dust which pass through even the good strainer, 
or any threads or clots of garget or blood, or any other foreign 
or undesirable matter. They are very effective in cleaning the 

393 



394 



KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARIvET MILK 




— d 



a ft 



.2 ^ 



cStO 



■d H 



^■^ 



PASTEURIZED T.IILK 395 

milk and do not injure either the cream line or the condition of 
the fat globules. While, of course, it is preferable that the 
milk be produced and handled so cleanly that no such treatment 
shall be needed, it is a fact, nevertheless, that practically all 
milk would be benefited more or less by the use of such a 
machine. 

Ordinary cream separators have often been used for this pur- 
pose by turning the cream and milk spouts to discharge into 
tlie same vessel, but though the " slime " removed is consider- 
able, the machine devised for this particular purpose is more 
effective. 

Standardized milk is milk to which cream or skim milk has 
been added for the purpose of bringing the fat content of the 
resultant mixture to the desired or required standard. Very 
often standardizing may be accomplished by merely mixing 
together the milk of the various breeds of cows. There is 
nothing ethically wrong with standardization and it should not 
be made illegal either by law or ruling. It is now practiced 
by practically all the larger city dairy companies. Those desir- 
ing to standardize the milk of a single herd may find the method 
explained in Chapter XXI'X helpful. 

Pasteurized milk is that which has been heated for the pur- 
jjose of destroying whatever bacteria there are present in it. 

Flash System. — When first introduced this system involved 
the heating of the milk to a temperature of about 1G6 degrees F., 
at which temperature it was held for a mere fraction of a 
minute, when it was immediately cooled to a temperature of 
about 40 degrees. Various machines were developed for the 
purpose of treating milk thus, despite the fact that the process 
was frowned upon by most physicians and public health workers. 
The milk itself, furthermore, was often not agreeable to the 
consumer, since the high temperature caused a slight carameliza- 
tion of the milk sugar, thus changing the flavor slightly towards 
that of evaporated milk or boiled milk. The cream, tooi, did 
not rise quite as readily on such milk, thus causing many to feel 
that an insufficient amount of fat was present. 



396 KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARKET MILK 

The Held System. — The new process of pasteurizing is to 
heat the milk to a temperature of about 145 degrees ; to hold it 
at this temperature for about twenty-five minutes and then to 
cool quickly to about 40 degrees. By tliis means the cream line 
is not injured, the flavor is not changed and the bacteria are 
even more thoroughly destroyed than by the foiTaer system. 
This latter method is the one most largely employed at the 
present time. 

The Bottle System. — A third method is to first bottle and 
cap the milk and then to immerse the bottles in warm water, 
then to raise the temperature of the tank of water to 145 
degrees for fifty minutes to heat the milk. This nethod is 
better adapted to small dairies. It is not yet in geu'^ral use. 

Pasteurization of milk is no longer forbidden by health 
boards as was often the case a few years ago. On tJie contrary, 
practically all physicians now recommend it and many cities 
are compelling that milk shall have been pasteur ized or shall 
have been produced by tested cows tinder inspected conditions 
before such milk shall be allowed to be sold within said city. 
Pasteurization, properly done, unquestionably improves the 
quality of the milk as it ordinarily comes to market and does 
not impair its nutritive properties in any way. 

Sanitary milk is that produced by cows waich have been 
examined and found free from tuberculosis and other disease 
and under conditions of cleanliness such as to insure a product 
containing not to exceed 100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. 
Such milk is considerably cleaner than the ordinary market 
milk before clarifying and pasteurization, but may be con- 
siderably inferior to certified milk. It, however, is less ex- 
pensive to produce and may be sold at a lower figure. This 
milk is usually sold raw, i.e., without being pasteurized. 

Certified milk is milk the cleanliness of which has been 
certified to by the local health board or certification committee 
of physicians. Such milk must have been produced from cows 
tested and found free from disease and produced under con- 
ditions of stable and milkers, such as to insure the presence of 
not to exceed 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter at the time 
of delivery to the consumer. 



HOMOGENIZED MILK 397 

Thp production of certified milk involves identically the same 
factors as mentioned in tlie production of clean milk, with the 
exception that each point is carried to a greater degree ; thus the 
cows must be a little cleaner, the stable atmosphere a little freer 
of dust, the milkers' hands cleansed before the milking of each 
cow, all pails aoid cans thoroughly sterilized and the milk cooled 
at once to 50 degrees or below. 

In the past an immense amount of unnecessary expense has 
been incurred in the production of certified milk. Millionaires 
of good intentions have lavished their wealth upon cow stables 
and bottling outfits with the result that there was no profit in 
the industry when the interest on the money invested was 
taken into account. Often, too, the cooling and' bottling ma- 
chines were so elaborate as to be difiicult of cleaning. This 
naturally resulted in the production of an article considerably 
inferior to that which could be produced by means of a simple 
and less expensive outfit. It is gratifying to note that there 
is now a tendency away from the unnecessary dairy refinements 
with a more tenacious clinging to the points essential in clean 
milk production. In Chapter XXVI are given the chief rules 
and regTilations laid down for the production of certified milk. 

Homogenized milk is milk rendered homogeneous, or uni- 
form, throughout. Homogenization of milk involves not only 
the pulverization of the fat globules, as originally thought, but 
also the breaking up of the casein shreds as well. The process 
may, and usually does, also involve pasteurization, since milk 
may be more readily and rapidly homogenized at a compara- 
tively high temperature. The homogenizer is a machine con- 
sisting essentially of three or more pumps which force the milk 
through a small aperture against a hard surface under a pressure 
of from two to five thousand pounds per square inch. In prac- 
tice homogenization is now employed most largely by ice cream 
manufacturers and the pressure and temperature em^ployed vary 
with the use to which the cream or milk is to be put. Unsalted 
butter and skim milk may easily, by the aid of this machine, be 
emulsified into a milk or cream of any desired fat percentage. 
Thus it may be employed in cream and ice cream making in the 
winter season when fresh cream is scarce and high priced. 



398 



KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARKET MILK 




HOMOGENIZED MILK 399 

Homogenized milk for infant feeding has been advocated for 
several years and though possessing a little merit, its value has 
been greatly over-estimated. The size of the fat globule, 
thought to be important, has been shown to be an exceedingly 
small factor compared with the percentage amount of fat in 
the milk fed and its proportion to other solids. It is exceed- 
ingly more important that the milk shall be medium to low in 
fat than that the globules of fat be small in size. Homogenized 
milk produces a fine flocculent curd, one which never clots into 
the hard rubbery mass characteristic of normal milk. This pro- 
duction of a friable curd is thought to be of more importance in 
the digestion of the milk by the infant than the small size of 
the fat globule. If, together with the breaking up of the fat 
and the casein in milk, it has also been thoroughly pasteurized 
and also kept low in fat percentage, then homogenized milk is 
of definite value in the feeding of delicate bottle-fed infants. 

METHODS OF SELLIXG MILK 

A milk rich in food solids is worth more per quart than that 
which is poor ; likewise, milk which is clean is wortli more than 
dirty milk. In winter, milk is generally less abundant and 
therefore higher in price. How to arrange sales from producer 
to distributer with three varying elements and yet not make the 
affair too complicated to be workable has long been a problem. 
Milk is now being purchased on no less than fourteen bases, 
ranging all the way from so much per " can," irrespective of 
fat and bacteria content, to a plan involving three sliding scales, 
one for cleanliness, one for fat content, and one for time of the 
year. All three are just reasons for modifying the price, yet 
they combine to make great complexity, which in turn makes 
for suspicion and dissatisfaction. 

The best plan, theoretically at least, is that now being tried 
by the Borden Milk Company, IS^ew York City. For any given 
month the price is fixed, based on Grade B milk (see Chapter 
XXV) at say $1.Y5 per hundred for milk testing 3.5 per 
cent fat ; then for every tenth of a per cent increase in fat 



400 KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARKET MILK 

over 3.5, three cents extra are paid, and for every tenth below 
three cents are deducted, thus a 5.0 per cent milk would bring 
$2.20 and a 3.0 per cent milk would be worth $1.60. In addi- 
tion five cents extra per hundred is paid for Grade A milk and 
a like amount subtracted if the milk falls into the Grade C 
class. Thus, 100 pounds of 5 per cent Grade A would be 
worth $2.25, while 100 pounds of 3.0 per cent Grade C would 
bring only $1.55. A different price standard for each month 
in the year may then be announced in advance with a table 
indicating just what any particular class and grade will be 
worth. ^ 

There is a strong tendency throughout the middle west to 
buy on the fat test solely, to buy, as it were, the fat in the form 
of milk. 

The breeders of Jersey and Guernsey cattle will welcome 
any system that pays for quality. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by " loose " milk? 

2. Why is bottled milk mjore likely to be good than loose milk in cities? 
3 What is clarified milk? 

4. What is standardized milk? 

5. What is pasteurization? Explain the tliree systems. 

6. What is " sanitary" milk? 

7. What is certified milk? How is it produced? 

8. What is homogenized milk? 

9. Describe the method of selling milk in vogue in any city with which you 

are familiar. 
10. Describe the Borden Milk Company's plan. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
FOOD VALUE OF MILK 

Any serious consideration of the use of milk as a food should 
take into account both the composition of the milk and the use to 
be made of it, for not only does milk vary greatly in composition 
but the work to be done by milk varies nearly if not quite as 
much. 

Milk for Adults. — While milk rich in fat possesses more 
food value there might easily be conditions under which skim 
milk, or that from which a part of the fat has been removed, 
might be more valuable, that is, would do the individual con- 
suming the milk more good. 

Milk varies not only in its fat content, but in other solids as 
well, as will be noted from the table. 





Composition 


of Milk} 






Protein, 






Total 


Fat 


Casein and Albumen 


Carbohydrates (sugar) 


Starch Vali 


Per cent 


Per cent 




Per cent 


Per cent 


2.5 


2.55 




4.45 


12.62 


3.0 


2.68 




4.60 


14.03 


3.5 


2.81 




4.75 


15.43 


4.0 


3.08 




4.85 


16.93 


4.5 


3.27 




4.97 


18.96 


5.0 


3.45 




4.98 


19.68 


5.5 


3.65 




4.92 


20.94 


6.0 


3.82 




4.96 


22.23 


6.5 


4.12 




4.90 


23.67 


7.0 


4.22 




4.84 


24.81 



The solids, other than fat, in milk are chiefly casein and 
albumen, which make up the protein or muscle-building portion 
of the milk, and sugar, which can be used by the consumer only 
to furnish energy and heat and produce fat, and ash, which is 
the material from which bone is formed. The sugar of milk, 
like other sugars and starches, is kno ^vn as carbohydrate. From 

^ Minnesota Bulletin 140. 
26 401 



402 FOOD VALUE OF MILK 

the above table it is readily observed that as the fat increases in 
the milk the other solids increase likewise, though not in pro- 
portion. Sugar is the most constant of all the substances and 
fat the most variable. The last column in the table, indicated 
as " starch value," shows the number of pounds of starch or 
other similar pure carbohydrates which would be required to 
equal in total heating or energy value 100 pounds of milk of 
the grade indicated. Thus, we see that 14.03 pounds of starch 
would be required to equal 100 i)ounds of 3 per cent milk in 
food value, while 22.23 pounds of starch would be required as 
the equivalent of 100 pounds of 6 per cent milk. It will be 
observed further that milk naturally containing 7 per cent fat, 
which amount is not at all unusual with Jersey cows, possesses 
practically twice the food value of milk naturally containing 
only 21/2 per cent fat, despite the fact that sugar, casein and 
albumen remain as more nearly constant qualities. 

This question of relative food values of milks of varying fat 
grade is best shown by figure 128. In this it is readily seen that 
100 pounds or a quart of natural milk testing 5.5 per cent fat 
contains nearly half again more food than one naturally yields 
at 3.25 per cent fat content. 

From a study of this table and figure it might naturally be 
inferred that the milks which are naturally richer in fat possess 
more food value and are worth actually more money per quart. 
This is true under ordinary conditions. If the milk is con- 
sumed by adults or by children after they are eating ordinary 
foodstuffs, the more solids it contains the more valuable it will 
be, not in proportion to the fat content, but in proportion to 
the starch value figure. This table also clearly shows the un- 
reasonableness on the part of some consumers for a rich milk 
at a poor milk price, for it must be remembered that cows do 
not create milk or anything else, they merely transform the 
feed materials which they eat from that of hay and grain into 
the milk solids. More cow feed is required to produce a quart 
of rich milk than a quart of poor milk. 

Most foods are firm to the touch and are sold by the pound, 
while milk is watery and sold by the quart. The unit in the 



MILK FOR ADULTS 



403 



case of milk is more than twice that of most other food sub- 
stances. For these reasons it is so easy to think of milk as a 
beverage that few people realize or can appreciate when they 
are clearly told that milk actually carries more food substance 
per pound than most of the garden vegetables. See table of 
composition. 



COMPARAT/Ve rOOO VALUE OF M / L J( 
VA RY/NG rAT CONTCA/T. 
S TARCH ETOU/VAL £VV T BAS/S 



/•e/f CCfjr 



r 


I6S3 


n 


laie 




/9S6 


T 


1 


■ 


p-f.a/ 


•40S 


/S/3 


SO 94 


Z223 


Z3.S/ 


MILK 


3.0 3 


S 


u 




ri 


5 


S 


S 6 


6 


S 70 



Fig. 128. — Total food value of milk of various grades. The height of the bars is 
proportional to the total food value of the milk and the distance from the base line to the 
dotted line represents the value of a standardized 33^4 per cent milk Note that a normal 
6 per cent milk contains nearly 50 per cent more food than the standard. 

A strict comparison of qualities and values in milk, however, 
must take into account the fact that milk is an animal product 
and like meat and eggs, very easily and thoroughly digested, 
which is not the case with cereals and vegetables. Therefore, 
correct and fair comparison can be made only between milk and 
other animal feeds. Furthermore, the comparison should be 
between milk of a definite grade and meats or other such foods 
which carry enough fat to make their composition comparable ; 
or, in other words, they should have approximately the same 



404 FOOD VALUE OF MILK 

ratio of nutrients. In a study of our common animal foods on 
this basis we find that the cost per pound of edible dry matter, 
actual food substance, varies tremendously with the composition 
of the food as well as with the price paid, as shown in the table. 

Cost Per Pound Dry Matter, Milk vs. Other Foods 

Cost per pound 
Kind of Food Retail Price Digestible Dry Matter 

Fat porter house steak 30 cents per pound $ .80 

Rouiid steak 20 cents per pound .64 

Hamburg steak 20 cents per pound .60 

Eggs { 1 dozen = 11,4 pounds) ... 30 cents per dozen , .85 

Skim milk 4 cents per quart .24 

Oysters ( solids ) 40 cents per quart 2.00 

Plain milk, 3.25 per cent fat 7 cents per quart .28 

Plain milk, 3.2'5 per cent fat 8 cents per quart .32 

Ham 25 cents per pound .65 

Certified milk, 4.0 per cent fat.. 15 cents per quart .52 

Sanitary milk, 3.25 per cent fat, 12 cents per quart .48 

Cream, 20 per cent fat 40 cents per quart .75 

Bacon 25 cents per pound .35 

Ice cream, 12 per cent fat 30 cents per quart .72 

A study of the table reveals the surprising fact that even 
though 4 cents per quart were charged for skim milk it furnishes 
edible dry matter for approximately 2-i cents per pound, as 
against 80 cents in the case of porter house steak, 80 cents to $1 
per pound in the case of eggs, and $2 per pound in the case of 
oysters. It should be remembered too that these foods are similar 
in their nutrients and possess chemical character making them 
essentially equivalent in their bone, muscle and fat producing 
qualities. 

Following into the second division, where ordinary market 
milk is compared with smoked ham, it is observed that even certi- 
fied milk at 15 cents per quart is a cheaper food than is smoked 
ham at 25 cents per pound. Ham, it will be remembered, is 
covered over much of its surface by rind and possesses a bone, 
neither of which is edible, and that the edible flesh itself is prac- 



MILK FOR INFANTS 405 

tically half water. Water is the great " joker " in the whole 
food study. Good sanitary milk of 4.0 per cent fat at 12 cents 
per quart (6 cents per pound) furnishes food for one-third 
to one-half the price per pound that is regularly paid for 
meat foods. 

Certified milk costs too much for most purposes, however, 
hecaus(? of the excessive amount of labor required in its produc- 
tior. Those having healthy young children to feed may find 
t! at sanitary milk selling at ten to twelve cents per quart is 
equally as valuable and considerably less expensive. Ordinarily, 
plain market milk at 7 cents per quart furnishes food, even for 
the adult, at practically one-half the cost per pound of 
smoked ham. 

This same question may easily be expressed in other terms, 
as sho^vn in the following table : 

Value of Milk When Compared with Other Foods 

Retail Selling In Comparison 

Kind of Food Price Milk is worth per Qt. 

Porter house steak 30 cents per pound 20 cents 

Round steak ■ ■ ■ . . 20 cents per pound 16 cents 

Ham 25 cents per pound 16 cents 

Eggs 30 cents per dozen 21 cents 

Oysters 40 cents per quart 50 cents 

All of the a' jve refers to the use of milk by those who 
consume other foods and take milk as supplementary or as an 
adjunct to the regular meal. 

Milk for Infants. — Infants, while too young to readily digest 
starch or endure cellulose, must of necessity live largely or 
wholly upon milk. The substance of the bones and muscle 
grown by the child during this period must come from the milk 
used. It has now been conclusively shown that the chemical 
composition of the milk consumed determines the composition of 
the flesh produced from it. The ratio or proportion of muscle 
to fat in the experimental animal bore a constant relation to the 
ratio of the protein to fat-producing elements in the milk con- 



406 FOOD VALUE OF MILK 

sumed. The proportion of the various food substances of milk 
of varying fat grade is well shown in the accompanying table. 

Percentage Composition of Water-free Substance in Milk of Varying Fat 

Content ^ 



Grade of Milk 
Per cent 


Butter Fat 
Per cent 


Protein 
Per cen: 


Carbohydrates 
Per cent 


Asli 
Per cent 


3.0 fat 


27.27 


24.36 


41.83 


6.54 


3.5 fat 


29.76 


23.89 


40.40 


5.95 


4.0 fat 


31.70 


24.40 


38.45 


5.46 


4.5 fat 


33.41 


24.28 


36.89 


5.42 


5.0 fat 


35.28 


24.35 


35.22 


5.15 


5.5 fat 


37.16 


24.66 


33.25 


4.93 


6.0 fat 


38.78 


24.69 


31.75 


4.78 


6.5 fat 


39.95 


25.32 


30.12 


4.61 


7.0 fat 


41.62 


25.09 


28.78 


4.51 



The relative amounts of the chief ingredients of milk are 
shown in Fig. 129, which is (lra^vn to scale from this table. This 
emphasizes the predominance of fat over other solids in such 
food. 

The especial attention of the reader is called to the fact that 
whereas 6.54 per cent of the 3 per cent milk is ash available 
for building of bone in the child, only about two-thirds of that 
quantity of ash is present in the rich milk. It will be noted that 
whereas only 27.27 per cent of tlie total milk solids are fat in 
the case of 3 per cent milk, 38.78 per cent are fat in the case of 
6 per cent milk, and 41.62 per cent in the case of 7 per cent 
milk. Whenever the milk fed to the child brings fat and sugar 
to the child's system, in quantities greater than needed for 
normal growth, in conjunction with the muscle-building protein 
and bone-building ash, that child becomes over-fat, weak, subject 
to eczema, rickets, and other infantile scourges. This may be 
shown to best advantage by using figures obtained in a series of 
experiments carried on at the Vermont Station, reported in 
Bulletin 195 (see table, top of next page). 

The nation-wide habit of allowing milk to stand until the 
cream has largely risen and then using the " top-milk " with 
water and sugar added for the feeding of infants is exceedingly 
dangerous and has unquestionably been the foundation cause 

' Minnesota Bulletin 140. 



MILK FOR INFANTS 



407 



Effect of Composition of Food Upon the Character of Body Gain. 









Ratio of 


Condition 


Kind of Food. 


Per cent 


Nutritive 


Muscle to 


of the 




Fat. 


Ratio =1:1 


Fat=l:l 


Animals. 










Rough 


Skim milk 


.04 


1.28 


.86 


Hard 

Active 
Smooth 


Medium milk . . . 


2.67 


2.90 


1.61 


Firm 

Active 
Soft 


Rich milk 


4.72 


4.27 


2.52 


Sluggish 

Tender 

1 



Number 
in Average. 



16 

27 
15 



for weakness in the after-life of a great many Americaji infants. 

Stockmen have known for a great many years that the 

milk of a Holstein cow, testing little better than 3 per cent 

fat, will produce a stronger, healthier calf than will the milk 



COMPOS/ T/OA/ or THE SOL /OS Or/^/L/< OFVAf?r/NG FA T CffADE 



Onr MATT' eft 3 AS/3 

AT/O f-AT TO /VON-FAT7~r SOLIDS. 



PflOT£//Vi4iC \ 

\ 

ASH 65# g 



PSnClMT fAT 3.0 



i 



?ff.7» 



■!i.o^ 



Fig. 129. — Emphasizing the change of the proportion of fat to non-fatty solids in the 
solid matter of milk of varying fat grades; also that 2.43 pounds of low-priced solids 
accompanied each one pound of fat in the 3.0 per cent milk, whereas, only 1.29 pounds of 
cheap solids were required to be produced to accompany each pound of fat with a 7 per cent 
milk. 



408 FOOD VALUE OF MILK 

of a Jersey or Guernsey cow, which milk will test from 5 to 
6 per cent fat (Fig. 129). The true value of the milk that is to 
nourish two-thirds or 1,500,000 of our infant population depends 

mms^ I. 



%- 



^ * /"'^f-' ^ ,:.^ 



-<>«<:. >^'^-^-^ft 






ii' 










Fig. 130. — Photomicrographa of fat globules in milk. 1. Grade Jersey. 2. Grade Holstein. 

3. Human. 

upon its chemical composition quite as truly, if not quite so 
quickly, as upon the physical condition of the cow or the clean- 
ness of the milk (Fig, 130). 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by the " starch value " of milk? 

2. How much do various natural milks vary in total food value? 

3. What milk is most valuable to the adult? 

4. How does the cost jjer pound of edible solid matter in milk compare with 

meat, eggs and oysters? 

5. In comparison what is milk worth per quart? 

6. What milk is best suited to the needs of a growing infant and young child ? 

7. How did medium and rich milks compare in effect on infant pigs in a 

Vermont test ? 

8. What is the experience of stockmen with regard to grade of milk best 

suited to calf feeding? 



CHAPTER XL 

GOVERNMENT STANDARDS' OF PURITY FOR MILK 
AND ITS PRODUCTS 

A. MILKS 

1. Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the 
complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and 
kept, excluding that obtained within fifteen days before and ten 
days after calving, and contains not less than eight and one- 
half (8.5) per cent of solids not fat, and not less than three 
and one-quarter (3.25) per cent of milk fat. 

2. Blended milk is milk modified in its composition so as to 
have a definite and stated percentage of one or more of its 
constituents. 

3. Skim milk is milk from which a part or all of the cream 
has been removed and contains not less than nine and one-quar- 
ter (9.25) per cent of milk solids, 

4. Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below boil- 
ing but sufficiently to kill most of the active organisms present 
and immediately cooled to 50 degrees F. or lower. 

5. Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the tempera- 
ture of boiling water or higher for a length of time sufficient 
to kill all organisms present. 

6. Condensed milk, evaporated milk, is milk from which a 
considerable portion of water has been evaporated and contains 
not less than twenty-eight (2S) per cent of milk solids, of which 
not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths (27.5) per cent is 
fat. Condensed milks must, then, contain 7.7 per cent of fat. 

7. Sw^eetened condensed milk is milk from which a consid- 
erable portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar 
(sucrose) has been added, and contains not less than twenty- 
eight (28) per cent of milk solids, of which not less than twenty- 
seven and five-tenths (27.5) per cent is milk fat. 

409 



410 GOVERNMENT STANDARDS OF PURITY 

8. Condensed skim milk is skim milk from which a consid- 
erable portion of water has been evaporated. 

9. Buttermilk is the product that remains when butter is 
removed from milk or cream in the process of churning. 

10. Goat's milk, ewe's milk, etc., are the fresh, clean, lacteal 
secretions, free from colostrum, obtained by the complete milking 
of healthy animals other than cows, properly fed and kept, and 
conform in name to the species of animals from which they 
are obtained. 

B. CEEAM 

1. Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which 
rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated from it 
by centrifugal force, is fresh and clean and contains not less than 
eighteen (18) per cent of milk fat. 

2. Evaporated cream, clotted cream, is cream from which a 
considerable portion of water has been evaporated. 

C. MILK FAT OR BUTTER FAT 

1. Milk fat, butter fat, is the fat of milk and has the Keich- 
ert-Meissel number not less than twenty-four (24) and a spe- 
cific gravity of not less than 0.905 ( j^oX^ ) (Both fat and stand- 
ard at this temperature. ) 

D. BUTTER 

1. Butter is tlie clean, non-rancid product made by gather- 
ing in any manner the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a 
mass, which also contains a small portion of the other milk 
constituents, with or without salt, and contains not less than 
eighty-two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk fat. By acts 
of Congress approved August 2, 1886, and May 9, 1902, butter 
may also contain added coloring matter. 

2. Renovated butter, process butter, is the product made by 
melting butter and reworking, without the addition or use of 
chemicals or any substances except milk, cream, or salt, and 
contains not more than sixteen (16) per cent of water and at 
least eighty-two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk fat. 



KUMISS 411 

E. CHEESE 

1. Cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from 
milk or cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or 
lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments 
and seasoning, and contains, in the water-free substance, not 
less than fifty (50) per cent of milk fat. By act of Congress, 
approved June 6, 1896, cheese may also contain added color- 
ing matter. 

2. Skim milk cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product, 
made from skim milk by coagulating the casein thereof with 
rennet or lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening 
ferments and seasoning. 

3. Goat's milk cheese, ewe's milk cheese, etc., are the sound, 
ripened products made from the milks of the animals specified, 
by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, 
with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning. 

F. ICE CREAM 

1. Ice cream is a frozen product made from cream and sugar, 
with or without a natural flavoring, and contains not less than 
fourteen (14) per cent of milk fat. 

2. Fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, 
sugar, and sound, clean, mature fruits, and contains not less 
than twelve (12) per cent of milk fat. 

3. Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, 
sugar, and sound, non-rancid nuts, and contains not less than 
twelve (12) per cent of milk fat. 

G. MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 

1. Whey is the product remaining after the removal of fat 
and casein from milk in the process of cheese-making. 

2, Kumiss is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation 
of mare's or cow's milk. 



412 GOVERNMENT STANDARDS OF PURITY 

Composition of Milk and Its Products 

No of Casein and Milk 

Analyses Water Fat Albumen Sugar Ash Authority 

Perct. Perct. Perct. Per ct. Perct. 

Cow'a milk 793 87.17 3.09 3.55 4.88 .71 Konig 

Cow's milk ... 87.75 3.40 3.50 4.G0 .75 Fleishmann 

Cow'a milk .... . 5,552 87.10 3.90 3.20 5.10 .70 Van Slyke 

Cow's milk 200,000 87.10 3.90 3.40 4.85 .75 Richmond 

Colostrum milk. . 42 74.57 3.59 17.04 2.67 1.56 Kcinig 

Cream 43 68.82 22.66 3.76 4.23 .53 Konig 

Skim milk 

(gravity) 56 90.43 .87 3.26 4.74 .70 Konig 

Skim milk 

(gravity) 354 90.52 .32 .... Holland 

Skim milk 

(centrifugal).. .. 90.30 .10 3.55 5.25 .80 Van Slyke 

Buttermilk 57 90.12 1.09 4.03 4.04 .72 Konig 

Buttermilk 31 91.07 .27 Holland 

Whey 46 93.38 .32 .86 4.79 .65 Konig 

Whey . . 93.12 .27 .81 5.80 . . . Van Slyke 

Condensed milk (no 

sugar added) . . 36 58.99 12.42 11.92 14.49 2.18 Konig 
Condensed milk, 

(sugar added). 64 25.61 10.35 11.79 50.06 2.19 Konig 

Butter, salted.... 1,676 11.95 84.27 1.26 2.58 Woll 

Butter, 

sweet cream... 10 12.93 84.53 .61 .68 1.25 Kimig 
Butter, 

sour cream 11 13.08 84.26 .81 .66 1.19 Konig 

Butter, unsalted. 242 13.07 85.24 1.57 ... .12 Woll 
Butter, World's 

Fair, 1893 350 11.57 84.70 .95 ... 2.78 Farrington 

Cheese, cream 127 36.33 40.71 18.84 1.02 3.10 Konig 

Cheese, full cream . . 143 38.00 30.25 25.35 1.43 4.97 Kunig 

Cheese, Cheddar, greei: ... 36.84 33.83 23.72 5.G1 Van Slyke 

Cheese,cheddar. cured 27 34.38 32.71 26.38 2.95 3.58 Drew 
Cheese, World's Fair, 

Mammoth, 1893 1 32.00 34.43 28.00 5.51 .... Shutt 

Cheese, half-skim... 21 39.79 23.92 29.67 1.79 4.73 Konig 

Cheese, skim....'... 41 46.00 11.65 34.06 3.42 4.87 Konig 
Cheese, 

centrifugal skim., .. 50.5 1.2 43.1 5.2 Storch 



STANDARDS FOR BABCOCK GLASSWARE 413 

STANDARDS FOR BABCOCK GLASSWARE 

(Adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists of North America.) 

Sec. 1. The unit of graduation for all Babcock glassware 
shall be the true cubic centimeter (0.998877 gram of water at 4 
degrees C). 

(a) With bottles, the capacity of each per cent on the scale 
shall be two-tenths (0,20) cubic centimeter. 

(b) With pipettes and acid measures the delivery shall be 
the intent of the graduation and the graduation shall be read 
with the bottom of the meniscus in line with the mark. 

Sec. 2. The official method for testing bottles shall be 
calibration with mercury (13.5471 grams of clean, dry mercury 
at 20 degTees C, carefully weighed on analytical balances, to be 
equal to 5 per cent on the Babcock scale), the bottles being pre- 
viously filled to zero with mercury. 

Sec. 3. Optional Methods. — The mercury and cork, alcohol 
and burette, and alcohol and brass plunger methods may be em-, 
ployed for the rapid testing of Babcock bottles, but the accuracy 
of all questionable bottles shall be determined by the official 
method. 

Sec. 4. The official method for testing pipettes and acid 
measures shall be calibration by measuring in a burette the 
quantity of water (at 20 degrees C.) delivered. 

Sec. 5. The Limits of Error. — (a) For Babcock bottles 
shall be the smallest graduation on the scale, but in no case 
shall it exceed five-tenths (0.50) per cent, or for skim milk 
bottles one-hundredth (0.01) percent. 

(b) For full-quantity pipettes, it shall not exceed one-tenth 
(0.10) cubic centimeter, and for fractional pipettes, five-hun- 
dredths (0.05) cubic centimeter. 

(c) For acid measures it shall not exceed two-tenths (0.20) 
cubic centimeter. 



414 GOVERNMENT STANDARDS OF PURITY 

Chemical Standards for Milk and Cream in Sixty A merican Cities. 



City 



AUentown, Pa. . . . 
Atlantic City, N. J.. . . 

Augusta, Ga 

Baltimore, Md. . . . 
Birmingham, Ala. . . 

Boston, Mass 

Battle Creek, Mich. . 

Beaumont, Tex 

Butte, Mont 

Charlotte, N. C 

Chicago, 111 

Cincinnati, Ohio 

Cleveland, Ohio. . . 
Columbia, S. C. . . 
Columbus, Ohio.. . . 

Denver, Colo 

Detroit, Mich 

Elyria, Ohio 

Fall River, Mass. . . 

Flint, Mich 

Grand Rapids, Mich. . 
Great Falls, Mont. . 
Houston, Tex. . . . 
Indianapolis, Ind.. . 
Jacksonville. Fla. . . . 
Jersey City, N. J. . . . 
Kansas City, Mo. . . 

Little Rock, Ark 

Long Beach, Cal. . . 
Los Angeles, Cal. . . 
Memphis, Tenn. . . . 
Minneapolis, Minn. . 
New Orleans, La. . . 

Newark, N. J 

New Haven, Conn. . 

New York, N. Y 

North Yakima, Wash. 

Oakland, Cal 

Omaha, Neb 

Philadelphia, Pa 

Paterson, N. J . . . . 
Portland, Ore. . . . 
Providence, R. I... . 
Rochester, N. Y. . . 
Saginaw, Mich. . . . 
St. Joseph, Mo. . . . 

St. Louis, Mo 

St. Paul, Minn 

Salt Lake City, Utah . 
San Antonio, Tex.. . 
San Francisco, Cal.. . 

Seattle, Wash 

Spokane, Wash 

Syracuse, N. Y. . . . 
Tacoma, Wash. . . . 

Toledo, Ohio 

Topeka, Kansas.. . . 
Washington, D. C. . . 
Winona, Minn . . . . 



Per cent of 


Per cent of 


Jr'er cent 
solids for 
skim-milk 


Per cent fat 


milk fat 


other solids 


for cream 


3.25 


8.5 


9 




3 


8.5 




16 


3.5 


9 


9 


18 


3.5 


9 




18 


3.5 


9 


9 


18 


3.35 


8.8 


9.3 


15 


3 


9.5 




13 


3.25 


8.5 






3.3 


8.7 


8 


20 


3.25 


8.5 


8.75 


18 


3 


9 


8.5 


15 


3 


9 




18 


3 


8 


9 


18 


3 


9 


9.3 


16 


3 


9 


9.3 




3 


9 




16 


3 


9 


9.3 


18 


3 


9 


9.3 


16 


3.25 


8 




16 


3 






20 


3 


9.5 




18 


3.25 


8.5 


9.5 


18 


3.25 


8.75 




18 


3.25 


8.5 


9.25 


18 


3 


9 






3 


8.5 




18 


3.25 


8.75 


8.5 


18 


3.5 


12.5 


9 


18 


3.5 


12.5 


8.8 


20 


3.5 


9 


8.8 


20 


3.5 


8.5 


9.25 


20 


3.5 


8.5 


8.5 


20 


3.5 


8.5 


8 




3 


8.5 


8.75 


16 


3.5 


8 






3 


8.5 




18 


3.5 


8.5 


9.3 


18 


3.5 


8.5 






3.2 


8.5 




18 


3.25 


8.75 


8.5 


18 


3 


9 






3.2 


8.5 




20 


2.5 


9.5 






3 


9 






3 


8.5 


8.75 


18 


3.5 


8.5 


9.25 


18 


3 


9 


9.25 


15 


3.5 


9.5 




20 


3.2 


8.8 




18 


3.5 


8.5 


9.25 




3.4 


8.6 




18 


3.4 




9.3 


18 


3.5 


8.5 




20 


3 


8.5 


9.3 


18 


3.5 


8.5 


9.3 


18 


3 


9 




18 


3.5 


8.5 


9.25 


18 


3.5 


9 




20 


3.5 


9.5 




20 



Note the inconsistency in relationship between the per cent fat and the per cent of 
solids not fat, as expressed in the various ordinance requirements. See table on page 387. 



APPENDIX 



APPENDIX 



417 



TABLE III— FEEDING STUFFS 

Giving Pounds of Dry Mailer and Nutrients Contained in a Given Number 
of Pounds of Feed Stuff. 



Cured Roughage 



Fodder Com (Drilled) 


Com Stover 








Digestib 


e 






Digestible 






Dry 
Matter 








Lbs. 


Dry 

Matter 






Lba. 


















Pro. 


C-H. 
~T4F 


Fat 
.015 






Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


1 


.76 


.037 


1 


.59 


.014 


.31 


.007 


2 


1.52 


.074 


.83 


.029 


2 


1.19 


.028 


.62 


.014 


3 


2.28 


111 


1.24 


.044 


3 


1.78 


.042 


.94 


.021 


4 


3.04 


.148 


1.66 


.058 


4 


2.38 


-056 


1.25 


.028 


5 


3.80 


.185 


2.07 


.073 


5 


2.97 


.070 


1.56 


.035 


6 


4.56 


.222 


2.48 


.088 


6 


3.57 


.084 


1.87 


.042 


7 


5.32 


.259 


2.90 


.102 


7 


4.16 


.098 


2.18 


.049 


8 


6.08 


.296 


3.31 


.117 


8 


4.76 


.112 


2.50 


.056 


9 


6.84 


.333 


3.73 


.131 


9 


5.35 


.126 


2.81 


.063 


10 


7.60 


.370 


4.14 


.146 


10 


5 98 


.140 


3.12 


.070 






Sorghum 


Fodder 






Millet 


1 


.50 


.024 


.32 


.016 


1 


.86 


.050 


.47 


.011 


2 


1.01 


.048 


.64 


.032 


2 


1.72 


.100 


.94 


.022 


3 


1.51 


.072 


.96 


.048 


3 


2.58 


.150 


1.41 


.033 


4 


2.01 


.096 


1.28 


.064 


4 


3.44 


.200 


1.88 


.044 


5 


2.51 


.120 


1.60 


.080 


5 


4.30 


.250 


2.34 


.055 


6 


3.02 


.144 


1.93 


.096 


6 


5.16 


.300 


2.81 


.066 


7 


3.52 


.168 


2.25 


.112 


7 


6.02 


.350 


3.28 


.077 


8 


4.02 


.192 


2.57 


.128 


8 


6.88 


.400 


3.75 


.088 


9 


4.53 


.216 


2.89 


.144 


9 


7.74 


.450 


4.22 


.099 


10 


5.03 


.240 


3.21 


.160 


10 


8.60 


.500 


4.69 


.110 




Timothy 




Red Top 


1 


.87 


.02S 


.43 


.014 


1 


.91 


.048 


.47 


.010 


2 


1.74 


.056 


.87 


.028 


2 


1.82 


.096 


.94 


.020 


3 


2.60 


.084 


1.30 


.042 


3 


2.73 


.144 


1.41 


.030 


4 


3.47 


.112 


1.74 


.056 


4 


3.64 


.192 


1.88 


.040 


6 


4.34 


.140 


2.17 


.070 


5 


4.55 


.240 


2.34 


.050 


6 


5.21 


.168 


2.60 


.084 


,6 


5.47 


.288 


2.81 


.060 


7 


6.08 


.196 


3.04 


.098 


7 


6.38 


.336 


3.28 


.070 


8 


6.94 


.224 


3.47 


.112 


8 


7.29 


:384 


3.75 


.080 


9 


7.81 


.252 


3.91 


.126 


9 


8.20 


.432 


4.22 


.090 


10 


8.68 


.280 


4.34 


.140 


10 


9.11 


.480 


4.69 


.100 






Prairie ( 


Upland) 






Prairie (Mixed) 


1 


.87 


.03 


.42 


.014 


1 


.84 . 


.029 


.41 


.012 


2 


1.75 


• 06 


.84 


.028 


2 


1.62 


.058 


.83 


.024 


3 


2.62 


-09 


1.25 


.042 


3 


2.52 


.087 


1.24 


.036 


4 


3.50 


12 


1-67 


.056 


4 


3.36 


.116 


1.66 


.048 


5 


4.37 


15 


2. 09 


.070 


5 


4.20 


.145 


2.07 


.060 


6 


5.25 


•18 


2 51 


.084 


6 


5.05 


.174 


2.49 


.072 


7 


6.12 


.21 


2.93 


.098 


7 


5.89 


.203 


2.90 


.084 


8 


7.00 


•24 


3.34 


.112 


8 


6.73 


.232 


3.32 


.096 


9 


7.87 


.27 


3.76 


.126 


9 


7.57 


.261 


3.73 


.108 


10 1 


8.75 


.30 


4. 18' 


.140 


10 


8.41 


.290 


4.15 


.120 



418 



APPENDIX 
TABLE III — Feeding Stuffs — Continued 









CuREr 


Roughage — Continued 






Prairie (Swale) 


Barley 




Dry 


Digestible 




Dry 




Digestible 


Lbs. 


Matter 






Lbs. 


Matter 










Pro. 
026 


C-H. 


Fat 

Oil 


Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


1 


.86 


.42 


1 ll .85 


.057 


.44 


.01 


2 


1 73 


.052 


.84 


.022 


2 


1.70 


.114 


.87 


.02 


3 


2.59 


.078 


1.26 


.033 


3 


2.55 


.171 


1.31 


.03 


4 


3 45 


.104 


1.68 


.044 


4 


3.40 


.228 


1.74 


.04 


5 


4.31 


.130 


2.09 


.055 


5 


4.25 


.285 


2.18 


.05 


6 


5.18 


.156 


2.51 


.066 


6 


5.10 


.342 


2.62 


.06 


7 


6.04 


.182 


2.93 


.077 


7 


5.95 


.399 


3.05 


.07 


8 


6.90 


.208 


3.35 


.088 


8 


6.80 


.456 


3.49 


.08 


g 


7.77 


.234 


3-77 


.099 


9 


7.65 


.513 


3-92 


.09 


10 


8.63 


.260 


4.19 


.110 


10 


8.50 


.570 


4.36 


.10 




Oat 




Pea 


1 


.86 


.047 


.37 


.017 


1 


.90 


.080 


.41 


.017 


2 


1.72 


.094 


73 


.034 


2 


1.80 


.160 


.82 


.034 


3 


2.58 


.141 


1.10 


.051 


3 


2.71 


.240 


1.23 


.051 


4 


3.44 


• 188 


1.47 


.068 


4 


3.61 


.320 


1.64 


.068 


5 


4.30 


.235 


1.83 


.085 


6 


4.51 


.400 


2.05 


.085 


« 


5.16 


.282 


2.20 


.102 


6 


5.41 


.480 


2.47 


.102 


7 


6.02 


.329 


2.57 


.119 


7 


6.31 


.560 


2.88 


.119 


8 


6.88 


.376 


2.94 


.136 


8 


7.22 


.640 


3.29 


.136 


9 


7.74 


.423 


3.30 


.153 


9 


8.12 


.720 


3.70 


.153 


10 


8.60 


.470 


3.67 


.170 


10 


9.02 


.800 


4.11 


.170 




Cow Pea 






Soy 


Bean 




I 


.89 


.058 


.39 


.013 


1 


.88 


.106 


.41 


.012 


2 


1.79 


.116 


.78 


.026 


2 


1.76 


.212 


.82 


024 


3 


2.68 


.174 


1.80 


.039 


3 


2.65 


.318 


1.23 


.036 


4 


3.58 


.232 


1.57 


.052 


4 


3.53 


.424 


1.64 


.048 


5 


4.47 


.290 


1.96 


.065 


5 


4.41 


.530 


2.04 


.060 


6 


5.37 


.348 


2.36 


.078 


6 


5.29 


.636 


2.45 


.072 


7 


6.26 


.406 


2.75 


.091 


7 


6.17 


.742 


2.86 


.084 


8 


7 16 


.464 


3.14 


.104 


8 


7.06 


.848 


3.27 


.096 


9 


8.05 


.522 


3.54 


.117 


9 


7.94 


.954 


3.68 


.108 


10 


8.95 


.580 


3.93 


.130 


10 


8.82 


1.060 


4.09 


.120 




White Clover 




Red Clover 


1 


.90 


.115 


.42 


.015 


1 


.85 


.071 


.38 


.018 


2 


1.81 


.230 


.84 


.030 


2 


1.69 


.142 


.76 


.036 


3 


2.71 


.345 


1.27 


.045 


3 


2.54 


.213 


1.13 


.054 


4 


3.61 


.460 


1.69 


.060 


4 


3.39 


.284 


1.51 


.072 


6 


4.51 


.575 


2.11 


.075 


5 


4.23 


.355 


1.89 


.090 


6 


5.42 


.690 


2.53 


.090 


6 


5.08 


.426 


2.27 


.108 


7 


6.32 


.805 


2.95 


.105 


7 


5.93 


.497 


2.65 


.128 


8 


7.22 


.920 


3.38 


.120 


8 


6.78 


.568 


3.02 


.144 


9 


8.13 


1.035 


3.80 


,135 


9 


7.62 


.639 


3.40 


.162 


10 


9.03 


1.150 


4.22 


.150 


10 


8.47 


.710 


3.78 


.180 



APPENDIX 
TABLE III — Feeding Stuffs — Continued 



419 









CUREL 


Roughage — Continued 








Alsike Clover 




Alfalfa 






Dry 


Digestible 




Dry 


Digestible 




Lbs. 


Matter 






Lbs. 


Matter 








Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


1 


.90 


,084 


.42 


.015 


1 


.94 


.117 


.41 


.01 


2 


1.81 


.168 


.85 


.030 


2 


1.87 


.234 


.82 


.02 


3 


2.71 


.252 


1.27 


.045 


3 


2.81 


.351 


1.23 


.03 


4 


3.61 


.336 


1.70 


.060 


4 


3.74 


.467 


1.64 


.04 


5 


4.51 


.420 


2.12 


.075 


5 


4.68 


.585 


2.04 


.05 


6 


5.42 


.504 


2.55 


.090 


6 


5.62 


.702 


2.45 


.06 


7 


6.32 


.588 


2.97 


.105 


7 


6.55 


.819 


2.86 


.07 


8 


7.22 


.672 


3.40 


.120 


8 


7.49 


.936 


3.27 


.08 


9 


8.13 


.756 


3.82 


.135 


9 


8.42 


1.053 


3.68 


.09 


10 


9.03 


.840 


4.25 


.150 


10 


9.36 


1.170 


4.09 


.10 




Wheat Straw 




Oat Straw 


1 


.90 


.008 


.35 


.004 


1 


.91 


.013 


.39 


.008 


2 


1.81 


.016 


.70 


.008 


2 


1.82 


.026 


.79 


.016 


3 


2.71 


.024 


1.06 


.012 


3 


2.72 


.039 


1.18 


.024 


4 


3.62 


.032 


1.41 


.016 


4 


3.63 


.052 


1.58 


.032 


5 


4.52 


.040 


1.76 


.020 


5 


4.54 


.065 


1.97 


.040 


a 


5.42 


.048 


2.11 


.024 


6 


5.45 


.078 


2.37 


.048 


7 


S 33 


.056 


2.46 


.028 


7 


6.36 


.091 


2.76 


.056 


8 


7.23 


.064 


2.82 


.032 


8 


7.26 


,104 


3.16 


.064 


9 


8.14 


,072 


3.17 


.036 


9 


8.17 


.117 


3.55 


.072 


10 


9.04 


080 


3.52 


.040 


10 


9.08 


.130 


3.95 


,080 




Barley Straw 




Kaffir Forage 


1 


.86 


.009 


.40 


.006 


1 


.48 


.009 


.26 


.011 


2 


1.72 


.018 


.i'O 


.012 


2 


.96 


.019 


.52 


.022 


3 


2.57 


.027 


1.20 


.018 


3 


1.44 


.028 


.78 


.033 


4 


3.43 


.036 


1.60 


.024 


4 


1.92 


.038 


1.04 


.044 


6 


4.29 


.045 


2.00 


.030 


5 


2.39 


.047 


1.29 


,,055 


6 


5.15 


.054 


2.41 


.036 


6 


2.87 


.057 


1.55 


.066 


7 


6.01 


.063 


2.81 


.042 


7 


3.35 


,066 


1.81 


.077 


8 


6.86 


.072 


3.21 


.048 


8 


3.83 


,076 


2.07 


.088 


9 


7.72 


.081 


3.61 


.054 


9 


4,31 


.085 


2.33 


.099 


10 


8.58 


.090 


4.01 


.060 


10 


4.79 


,095 


2.59 


.110 




Oat an ^ Pea Hay 




Oi 


It and Vetch He 


ly 


1 


.89 


.076 


.41 


.016 


1 


.85 


.083 


.36 


.013 


2 


1.79 


.152 


.83 


.030 


2 


1.70 


.166 


.72 


.026 


3 


2.68 


.228 


1.24 


.045 


3 


2.55 


.249 


1.07 


.039 


4 


3.58 


.304 


1.66 


,060 


4 


3.40 


.332 


1.43 


.052 


5 


4.47 


.380 


2.07 


.075 


5 


4.25 


.415 


1,79 


.065 


6 


5.37 


.456 


2.49 


.090 


6 


5.10 


.498 


2,15 


.078 


7 


6.26 


.532 


2.90 


.105 


7 


5.95 


.581 


2.51 


.091 


8 


7.16 


.608 


3.32 


.120 


8 


6.80 


.664 


2.86 


.104 


9 


8.05 


.684 


3.73 


-135 


9 


7.65 


.747 


3.22 


.117 


10 


8.95 


760 


4.15 


.ISO 


10 


8.50 


.830 


3.58 


.130 



420 



APPENDIX 
TABLE III — Feeding Stuffs — Continued 



Silage 



Com Silage 


Sorghum Silage 




Dry 


Digestible 






Dry 


Digestible 




Lbs 


Matter 






Lbs. 


Matter 








Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


Pro. 
.004 


c-ii. 1 


Fat 


1 


.26 


.012 


.14 


.007 


1 


.24 


.13 


.002 


2 


.53 


.025 


.28 


.014 


2 


.48 


.008 


.27 


.004 


3 


.79 


.037 


.43 


.021 


3 


.72 


.012 


.40 


.006 


4 


1.06 


.050 


.57 


.028 


4 


.96 


.016 


.54 


.008 


5 


1.32 


.062 


.71 


.035 


5 


1.19 


.020 


.67 


.010 


6 


1.68 


.075 


.85 


.042 


6 


1.43 


.024 


.81 


.012 


7 


1.85 


.087 


.99 


.049 


7 


1.67 


.028 


.94 


.014 


8 


2.11 


.100 


1.14 


.056 


8 


1.91 


.032 


1.08 


.016 


9 


2.38 


.112 


1.28 


.063 


9 


2.15 


.036 


1.21 


.018 


10 


2.64 


.125 


1.42 


.070 


10 


2.39 


.040 


1.35 


.020 




Clover Silage 




Alfalfa Silage 


1 


.28 


.020 


.13 


.010 


1 


.27 


.030 


.08 


.019 


2 


.56 


.040 


.27 


.020 


2 


.55 


.060 


.17 


.038 


3 


.84 


.060 


.40 


.030 


3 


.82 


.090 


.25 


.057 


4 


1.12 


.080 


.54 


.040 


4 


1.10 


.120 


.34 


.076 


6 


1.40 


.100 


.67 


.050 


5 


1.37 


.150 


.42 


.095 


6 


1.68 


.120 


.81 


.060 


6 


1.65 


.180 


.51 


.114 


7 


1.96 


.140 


.94 


.070 


7 


1.92 


.210 


.59 


.133 


8 


2.24 


.160 


1.08 


.080 


8 


2.20 


.240 


.68 


.152 


9 


2.62 


.180 


1.21 


.090 


9 


2.47 


.270 


.76 


.171 


10 


2.80 


.200 


1.35 


.100 


10 


2.75 


.300 


.85 


.190 






Cow Pea Silage 


» 




Soy Bean Silage 


1 


.21 


.015 


.09 


.009 


1 


.26 


.027 


.09 


.013 


2 


.41 


.030 


.17 


.018 


2 


.52 


.054 


.17 


.026 


3 


.62 


.045 


.26 


.027 


3 


.77 


.081 


.26 


.039 


4 


.83 


.060 


.34 


.036 


4 


1.03 


.108 


.35 


.052 


5 


1.03 


.075 


.43 


.045 


5 


1.29 


.135 


.43 


.065 


6 


1.24 


.090 


.52 


.054 


6 


1.55 


.162 


.52 


.078 


7 


1.45 


.105 


.60 


.063 


7 


1.81 


.189 


.61 


.091 


8 


1.66 


.120 


.69 


.072 


8 


2.06 


.216 


.70 


.104 


9 


1.86 


.135 


.77 


.081 


9 


2.32 


.243 


.78 


.117 


10 


2.07 


.150 


.86 


.090 


10 


2.58 


.270 


.87 


.130 




Pea Cannery Refuse 




Corn Cannery Refuse 


1 


.23 


.021 


.13 


.008 


1 


.21 


.003 


.12 


.006 


2 


.46 


.042 


.26 


.016 


2 


.42 


.006 


.24 


.012 


3 


.70 


.063 


.39 


.024 


3 


.63 


.009 


.36 


.018 


4 


.93 


.084 


.52 


.032 


4 


.84 


.012 


.48 


.024 


5 


1.16 


.105 


.65 


.040 


5 


1.05 


.015 


.59 


.030 


6 


1.39 


.126 


.79 


.048 


6 


1.26 


.018 


.71 


.036 


7 


1.62 


.147 


.92 


.056 


7 


1.47 


.021 


.83 


.042 


8 


1.86 


.168 


1.05 


.064 


8 


1.68 


.024 


.95 


.048 


9 


2.09 


.189 


1.18 


.072 


9 


1.89 


.027 


1.07 


.054 


10 


2.32 


.210 


1.31 


.080 


10 


2.10 


.030 


1.19 


.060 



APPENDIX 
TABLE III — Feeding Stuffs — Continued 



421 











Roots 


vND Tubers 








Carrot 


Potato 




Dry 


Digestible 






Dry 


Digestible 












Lbs. 












Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 






Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


1 


.11 


.008 


.08 


.002 


1 


.21 


.011 


.16 


.001 


2 


.23 


.016 


.16 


.004 


2 


.42 


.022 


.31 


.002 


3 


.34 


.024 


.23 


.006 


3 


.63 


.033 


.47 


.003 


4 


.46 


.032 


.31 


.008 


4 


.84 


.044 


.63 


.004 


5 


.57 


.040 


.39 


.010 


5 


1.04 


.055 


.78 


.005 


6 


.68 


.048 


.47 


.012 


6 


1.25 


.066 


.94 


.006 


7 


.80 


.056 


.55 


.014 


7 


1.46 


.077 


1.10 


.007 


8 


.91 


.064 


.62 


.016 


8 


1.67 


.088 


1.26 


.008 


9 


1.03 


.072 


.70 


.018 


9 


1.88 


.099 


1.41 


.009 


10 


1.14 


.080 


.80 


.020 


10 


2.09 


.110 


1.57 


.010 




Sugar Beet 




Common Beet 


1 


.13 


.013 


.10 


.001 


1 


.11 


.012 


.08 


.001 


2 


.27 


.026 


.20 


.002 


2 


.23 


.024 


.16 


.002 


3 


.40 


.039 


.29 


.003 


3 


.34 


.036 


.24 


.003 


4 


.54 


.052 


.39 


.004 


4 


.46 


.048 


.32 


.004 


5 


-67 


.065 


.49 


.005 


5 


.57 


.060 


.39 


.005 


6 


•81 


.078 


.59 


.006 


6 


.69 


.072 


.47 


.006 


7 


.94 


.091 


.69 


.007 


7 


.80 


.084 


.55 


.007 


8 


1.08 


.104 


78 


.008 


8 


.92 


.096 


.63 


.008 


9 


1.21 


.117 


.88 


-.009 


9 


1.03 


.108 


.71 


.009 


10 


1.35 


.130 


.98 


.010 


10 


1.15 


.120 


.79 


.010 




Mangel 


1 


Rutabaga 


1 


.09 


.010 


.05 


.002 


.11 


.010 


.08 


.002 


2 


.18 


.020 


.11 


.004 


2 


.23 


.020 


.16 


.004 


3 


.27 


.030 


.16 


.006 


3 


.34 


.030 


.24 


.006 


4 


.36 


.040 


.22 


.008 


4 


.46 


.040 


.32 


.008 


5 


.45 


.050 


.27 


.010 


5 


.57 


.050 


.40 


.010 


6 


.55 


.060 


.33 


.012 


6 


.68 


.060 


.49 


.012 


7 


.64 


.070 


.38 


.014 


7 


.80 


.070 


.57 


.014 


8 


.73 


.080 


.44 


.016 


8 


.91 


.080 


.65 


.016 


9 


.82 


.090 


.49 


018 


9 


1.03 


.090 


.73 


.018 


10 


.91 


.100 


.55 


.020 


10 


1.14 


.100 


.81 


.020 




Flat Turnip 




Wet Beet Pulp 


1 


.10 


.009 


.06 


.001 


1 


.10 


.005 


.08 


.000 


2 


.20 


.018 


.13 


.002 


2 


.20 


.010 


.15 


.000 


3 


.30 


.027 


.19 


.003 


3 


, .31 


.015 


.23 


.000 


4 


.40 


.036 


.26 


.004 


4 


.41 


.020 


.31 


.000 


5 


.49 


.045 


.32 


.005 


5 


.51 


.025 


.38 


.000 


6 


.59 


.054 


.38 


.006 


6 


.61 


.030 


.46 


.000 


7 


.69 


.063 


.45 


.007 


7 


.71 


.035 


.54 


.000 


8 


.79 


.072 


.51 


.008 


8 


.82 


.040 


.62 


.000 


9 


.89 


.081 


.58 


.009 


9 


.92 


.045 


.69 


.000 


10 


.99 


.090 


.64 


.010 


10 


1.02 


.050 


.77 


.000 



422 



APPENDIX 
TABLE III — Feeding Stvffs— Continued 







CONCEN' 


"RATES — 


Ground Grains 


and By-Froducts 




Corn 


Barley 




Dry 


Digestible 






Drj 


Digestible 




Lbs. 


Matter 






Lba. 


Matt ;r 








Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


1 


.89 


.079 


.67 


.043 


1 


■ .89 


.084 


.65 


.016 


2 


1.78 


.158 


1.33 


.086 


2 


1.78 


.168 


1.31 


.032 


3 


2.67 


.237 


2.01 


.129 


3 


2 68 


.252 


1.96 


.048 


4 


3.56 


.316 


2.67 


.172 


4 


3.57 


.336 


2.61 


.064 


5 


4.45 


.395 


3.33 


.215 


5 


4.46 


.420 


3.26 


.080 


6 


5.35 


.474 


4.00 


.258 


6 


5.35 


.504 


3.92 


.096 


7 


6.24 


.553 


4.67 


.301 


7 


6 24 


.588 


4.57 


.112 


8 


7.13 


.632 


5.34 


.344 


8 


7.14 


.672 


5.22 


.128 


9 


8.02 


.711 


6.00 


.387 


9 


8.03 


.756 


5.88 


.144 


10 


8.91 


.790 


6.67 


.430 


10 


8.92 


.840 


6.53 


.160 




Oats 




Wheat 


1 


.90 


.107 


.50 


.038 


1 


.89 


.088 


.67 


.015 


2 


1.79 


.214 


1.01 


.076 


2 


1.79 


.176 


1.35 


.030 


3 


2.69 


.321 


1.51 


.114 


3 


2.68 


.264 


2.02 


.045 


4 


3.58 


.428 


2.01 


.152 


4 


3.58 


.352 


2.70 


.060 


5 


4.48 


.535 


2.51 


.190 


5 


4.47 


.440 


3.37 


.075 


6 


5.38 


.642 


3.19 


.228 


6 


5 37 


.528 


4.05 


.090 


7 


6.27 


.749 


3.52 


.266 


7 


6 26 


.616 


4.72 


.105 


8 


7.17 


.856 


4.02 


.304 


8 


7.16 


.704 


5.40 


.120 


9 


8.06 


.963 


4.53 


.342 


9 


8.05 


.792 


6.07 


.135 


10 


8,96 


1070 


5.03 


.380 


10 


8.95 


.880 


6.75 


.150 




Wheat Bran 




Flour Wheat Middlings 


1 


.88 


.119 


.42 


.025 


1 


.90 


.17 


.54 


.041 


2 


1.76 


.238 


.84 


.050 


2 


1.80 


.34 


1.07 


.082 


3 


2.64 


.357 


1.26 


.075 


3 


2.70 


,51 


1.61 


.123 


4 


3.52 


.476 


1.68 


.100 


4 


3.60 


.68 


2.14 


.164 


6 


4.40 


.595 


2.10 


.125 


5 


4.50 


.84 


2.68 


.205 


6 


5.29 


.714 


2.52 


.150 


6 


5.40 


1.01 


3.22 


.246 


7 


6.17 


.833 


2.94 


.175 


7 


6.30 


1.18 


3.75 


.287 


8 


7.05 


.952 


3.36 


.200 


8 


7.20 


1.35 


4.29 


.328 


9 


7.93 


1.071 


3.78 


.225 


9 


8.40 


1.52 


4.82 


.369 


10 


8.81 


1.190 


4.20 


.250 


10 


9.00 


1.69 


5.36 


.410 




Wheat Shorts 


r 


Red Dog Flour 


1 


.89 


.130 


46 


045 


.90 


.162 


.57 


.034 


2 


1.78 


,260 


91 


.090 


2 


1.80 


.324 


1.14 


.068 


3 


2.66 


.390 


1 37 


.135 


3 


2.70 


.486 


1.71 


.102 


4 


3.55 


.520 


1.83 


.180 


4 


3.60 


.658 


2.28 


.136 


5 


4.44 


.650 


2 28 


.225 


5 


4.50 


.810 


2.85 


.170 


6 


5.33 


.780 


2.74 


.270 


6 


5.41 


.972 


3.42 


.204 


7 


6.22 


.910 


3.20 


.315 


7, 


6.31 


1.134 


3.99 


.238 


8 


7.10 


1.040 


3.66 


.360 


8 


7.21 


1.296 


4.56 


.272 


9 


7.99 


1.170 


4.11 


.405 


9 


8.11 


1.458 


5.13 


.306 


10 


8.88 


1.300 


4.57 


.450 


10 


9.01 


1.620 


5.70 


.340 



APPENDIX 
TABLE III — Feeding Stuffs — Continued 



423 



Concentrates — Continued 



Eminer (Speltz) 




Com and Cob Meal 




Dry 


Digestible 




Dry 


Digestible 




Lbs 


MaUer 






Lbs. 


Matter 








Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


Pro. 
.044 


C-H. 


Fat 


1 


.92 


.10 


.70 


.02 


1 


.85 


.60 


.029 


2 


1.84 


.20 


1.41 


.04 


2 


1.70 


.088 


1.20 


.058 


3 


2.76 


.30 


2.11 


.06 


3 


2.55 


.132 


1.80 


.087 


4 


3.68 


.40 


2.81 


.08 


4 


3.40 


.176 


2.40 


.116 


5 


4.60 


.50 


3.51 


.10 


5 


4.24 


.220 


3.00 


.145 


6 


5.52 


.60 


4.22 


.12 ' 


6 


5.09 


.264 


3.60 


.174 


7 


6.44 


.70 


4.92 


.14 


7 


5.94 


.308 


4.20 


.203 


8 


7.36 


.80 


5.62 


JO 


8 


6.79 


.352 


4.80 


.232 


9 


8.28 


.90 


6.33 


.18 


9 


7.64 


.396 


5.40 


.261 


10 


9.20 


1.00 


7.03 


.20 


10 


8.49 


.440 


6.00 


.290 




Kaffir Com 




Sorghum Seed 


1 


.90 


.052 


.44 


.014 


1 


.87 


.045 


.61 


.028 


2 


1.80 


.104 


.89 


.028 


2 


1.74 


.090 


1.22 


.056 


3 


2.70 


.156 


1.33 


.042 


3 


2.62 


.135 


1.83 


.084 


4 


3.60 


.208 


1.77 


.056 


4 


3.49 


.180 


2.44 


.112 


5 


4.50 


.260 


2.21 


.070 


5 


4.36 


.225 


3.05 


.140 


6 


5.41 


.312 


2.66 


.084 


6 


5.23 


.270 


3.67 


.168 


7 


6.31 


.364 


3.10 


.098 


7 


6.10 


.315 


4.28 


.196 


8 


7.21 


.416 


3.54 


.112 


8 


6.98 


..360 


4.89 


.224 


9 


8.11 


.468 


3.99 


.126 


9 


7.85 


.405 


5.50 


.252 


10 


9.01 


.520 


4.43 


.140 


10 


8.72 


.450 


6.11 


.280 




Buckwheat Bran 




Buckwheat Middlii 


lg3 


1 


.92 


.059 


.34 


.02 


1 


.87 


.227 


.37 


.061 


2 


1.84 


.118 


.68 


.04 


2 


1.74 


,454 


.75 


.122 


3 


2.75 


.177 


1.02 


.06 


3 


2.62 


.681 


1.12 


.183 


4 


3.67 


.236 


1.36 


.08 


4 


3.49 


.908 


1.50 


.244 


5 


4.59 


.295 


1.70 


.10 


5 


4.36 


1.135 


1.87 


.305 


6 


5.51 


.354 


2.04 


.12 


6 


5.23 


1.362 


2.25 


.366 


7 


6.43 


.413 


2.34 


.14 


7 


6.10 


1.589 


2.62 


.427 


8 


7.34 


.472 


2.72 


.16 


8 


6.98 


1.816 


3.00 


.488 


9 


8.26 


.531 


3.06 


.18 


9 


7.85 


2.043 


3.37 


.549 


10 


9.18 


.590 


3.40 


.20 


10 


8.72 


2.270 


3.75 


.610 




Rye Bran 




Rye Middlings 


1 


.88 


.112 


.47 


.020 


1 


.88 


.110 


.53 


.026 


2 


1.77 


.224 


.94 


.036 


2 


1.76 


.220 


1.06 


.052 


3 


2.65 


.336 


1.40 


.054 


3 


2.65 


.330 


1.59 


.078 


4 


3.54 


.448 


1.87 


.072 


4 


3.53 


.440 


2.12 


.104 


5 


4.42 


.560 


2.34 


.090 


5 


4.41 


.550 


2.64 


.130 



424 



APPENDIX 
TABLE III— Feeding 8TVFFa—C o?itmued 



Concentrates— CoK/inwed 



Millet 


Hominy Feed 


Lbs. 


Dry 

Matter 


Digestible 


Lbs. 


Dry 
Matter 


Digestible 




Pro. 

.071 
.142 
.213 
.284 
.355 


C-H. 


Fat 


Pro. 


C-H. 


Fat 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.39 


.48 

.97 

1.45 

1.94 

2.42 


.025 
.050 
.075 
.100 
.125 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


.90 
1.81 
2.71 
3.62 
4.52 


.068 
.136 
.204 
.272 
.340 


.60 
1.21 
1.81 
2.42 
3.02 


.074 
.148 
.222 
.296 
.370 




Com OU Meal' 


Bean Meal 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


.91 

1.83 
2.74 
3.66 
4.57 


.158 
.316 
.474 
.632 
.790 


.39 

-.78 

1.16 

1.55 

1.94 


.108 
.216 
.324 
.432 
.540 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 


.202 
.404 
.606 
.808 
1.010 


.42 

.85 

1.27 

1.69 

2.11 


.013 
.026 
.039 
.052 
.065 




Cow Pea Meal 




Soy Bean Meal 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 


.85 
1.71 
2.56 
3.42 
4.27 


.168 
.336 
.504 
.672 
.840 


.55 
1.10 
1.65 
2.20 
2.74 


.011 
.022 
.033 
.044 
.055 


1 

2 
3 

4 
5 


.88 
1.77 
2.65 
3.53 
4.41 


.291 

.582 

.873 

1.164 

1.455 


.23 
.47 
.70 
.93 
1.16 


.146 
.292 
.438 
.584. 
.730 




Gluten Feed 




Gluten Meal 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


.91 
1.82 
2.72 
3.63 
4.54 


.213 
.426 
.639 
.852 
1.065 


.53 
.1.06 
1.58 
2.11 
2.64 


.029 
.058 
.087 
.116 
.145 


1 
2 
3 

4 
5 


.90 
1.81 
2:71 
3.62 
,4.52 


.297 

.594 

.891 

1.188 

1.485 


.42 

.85 

1.27 

1.70 

2.12 


.061 
.122 
.183 
.244 
.305 




Linseed Meal 




Cotton-seed Meal 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


.90 
1.80 
2.71 
3.61 
4.51 


.302 

.604 

.906 

1.208 

1.510 


.32 

.64 

.96 

1.28 

1.60 


.069 
.138 
.207 
.276 
.345 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


.93 
1.86 
2.79 
3.72 
4.65 


.376 

.752 

1.128 

1.504 

1.880 


.21 
.43 
.64 
.86 
1.07 


.096 
.192 
.288 
.384 
.480 




Flax Seed 


Tankage 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


.91 
1.82 
2.72 
3.63 
4.54 


.206 
.412 
.618 
.824 
1.030 


.17 
.34 
.51 

.68 
.85 


.290 

.580 

.870 

1.160 

1.450 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


.930 
1.860 
2.790 
3.720 
4.650 


.501 
1.002 
1.503 
2.004 
2.505 


.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


.116 
.232 
.348 
.464 
.580 



Table IV.- 



APPI 

-Estimating the Amount of Milk and Butter Fat Produced by a Cow 

Who Have Not Time to . 
Compiled bt 



A cow 


Will 


AND WILL MAKE THE AMOUNT OF BUTTER 


giving 


give 




this 


this 




1 














1 1 


amount 


amount 


Is 


Is 


Is 


Is 


Is 


Is 


Is 


Is 


Is 


Is 1 Is 


Is 


I 


of milk 


of milk 


2.8 


2.9 


3.0 


3.1 


3.2 


3.3 


3.4 


3.5 


3.6 


3.7 : 3.8 


3.9 


4 


at a 
milking 


per 
week 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per per ' 


per 


Pf 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 


cent 

Lbs. 
1.01 


cent I cent 

Lbs. Lbs. 
1.04 1.06 


cent 
Lbs. 


ce 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
.92 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


H 


2 


28 


.78 


.81 


.84 


.87 


.90 


.95 


.98 


1.09 


1 


3 


42 


1.17 


1.22 


1.26 


1.30 


1.34 


1.39 


1.43 


1.47 


1.51 


1.55 1.60 


1.64 


1 


4 


56 


1.56 


1.62 


1.68 


1.74 


1.79 


1.85 


1.90 


1.96 


2.02 


2.07 


2.13 


2.18 


2 


5 


70 


1.96 


2.03 


2.10 


2.17 


2.24 


2.31 


2.38 


2.45 


2.52 


2.59 


2.66 


2.73 


2 


6 


84 


2.35 


2.44 


2.52 


2.60 


2.69 


2.77 


2.86 


2.94 


3.02 


3.11 


3.19 


3.28 


3 


7 


98 


2.74 


2.84 


2.94 


3.03 


3.14 


3.23 


3.33 


3.43 


3.53 


3.63 


3.72 


3.82 


3 


8 


112 


3.13 


3.25 


3.36 


3.47 


3.58 


3.70 


3.81 


3.92 


4.03 


4.14 


4.26 


4.37 


4 


9 


126 


3.52 


3.65 


3.78 


3.91 


4.03 


4.16 


4.28 


4.41 


4.54 


4.66 


4.79 


4.91 


5 


10 


140 


3.92 


4.06 


4.20 


4.34 


4.48 


4.62 


4.76 


4.90 


5.04 


5.18 


5.32 


5.46 


5 


11 


154 


4.31 


4.47 


4.62 


4.77 


4.93 


5.08 


5.24 


5.39 


5.54 


5.70! 5.85 


6.01 


6 


12 


168 


4.70 


4.87 


5.04 


5.21 


5.38 


5.54 


5.71 


5.88 


6.05 


6.22 6.38 


6.55 


6 


13 


182 


5.10 


5.28 


5.46 


5.64 


5.82 


6.01 


6.19 


6.37 


6.55 


6.73' 6.92 


7.10 


7 


14 


196 


5.48 


5.68 


5.88 


6.08 


6.27 


6.47 


6.66 


6.86 


7.06 


7.25 7.45 


7.64 


7 


15 


210 


5.88 


6.09 


6.30 


6.51 


6.72 


6.93 


7.14 


7.35 


7.56 


7.771 7.98 


8.19 


8 


16 


224 


6.27 


6.50 


6.72 


6.94 


7.17 


7.39 


7.62 


7.84 


8.01 


8.29 8.51 


8.74 


8 


17 


238 


6.66 


6.90 


7.14 


7.38 


7.62 


7.85 


8.09 


8.33 


8.57 


8.81 ! 9.04 


9.28 


9 


18 


252 


7.05 


7.31 


7.56 


7.81 


8.06 


8.32 


8.57 


8.82 


9.07 


9.32J 9.58 


9.83 


10 


19 


266 


7.45 


7.71 


7.98 


8.25 


8.51 


8.78 


9.04 


9.31 


9.58 


9.84!l0.11 


10.37 


10 


20 


280 


7.84 


8.12 


8.40 


8.68 


8.96 


9.24 


9.52 


9.80 


10.08 


10.36 10.64 


10.92 


11 


21 


294 


8.23 


8.53 


8.82 


9.11 


9.41 


9.70 


10.00 


10.29 


10.58 


10.88 11.17 


11.47 


11 


22 


308 


8.62 


8.93 


9.24 


9.55 


9.86 


10.16 


10.47 


10.78 


11.09 


11.40 11.70 


12.01 


12 


23 


322 


9.02 


9.34 


9.66 


9.98 


10.30 


10.63 


10.95 


,11.27 


11.59 


11.91 12.24 


12.56 


12 


24 


336 


9.41 


9.74 


10.08 


10.42 


10.75 


11.09 


11.42 


11.76 


12.10 


12.43 12.77 


13.10 


13 


25 


350 


9.80 


10.15 


10.50 


10.85 


11.20 


11.55 


11.90 


12.25 


12.60 


12.95 13.30 


13.65 


14 


26 


364 


10.19 


10.56 


10.92 


11.28 


11.65 


12.01 


12.38 


112.74 


13.10 


13.47 13.83 


14.20 


14 


27 


378 


10.58 


10.96 


ill.34 


11.72 


12.10 


12.47 


12.85 


'13.23 


13.61 


13.99 14.36 


14.74 


15 


28 


392 


10.98 


11.37 


11.76 


12.15 


12.54 


12.94 


13.33 


13.72 


14.11 


14.50'14.90 


15.29 


15 


29 


406 


11.37 


11.79 


!l2.18 


12.59 


12.99 


13.40 


13.80 


14.21 


14.62 


115.0215.4.'^ 


15.83 


16 


30 


420 


11.76 


12. IS 

I 


12.60 

1 


13.02 

1 


13.44 


13.86 


14.28 


14.70 


15.12 


J15.54 

i 


15.96 

1 


16.38 


16 



Note in Explanation of Above Table — How to I 
The purpose of the above table is to enable an estimate to be made of 
intended for the farmer who weighs the milk obtained from e-ach cow, but 
and easy to understand, even though it contains many figures. If it is studied 
The fii'st left-hand column shows the amount of milk wliich a cow m 
pounds at a milking, look down the first column of figures until the numbei 
figures is the amount of milk which the cow will give in a week. The butter 
The nmnbers at the top of these columns designate the per cent of fat that 
fat designate the amount of butter fat the cow will give in a week. The amt 
the "amount of butter fat" column which are opposite the amount of milk f 
An example: Glance dowTi the column given to Cow No. 1 on thf 
milking. If the average number of pounds of milk at a milking seems to b( 
give about 140 pounds of milk in a week. Place this doMTi as the total amo 
shows the per cent of fat which the cow's milk tests, and if it is 4 per cent, 
will measure the amount of butter fat made during the week — or .'i.fi pounds 
any given amount of milk and for anj' per cent test shown on the table. 



nx 

7 Week When Her Average Milking and Test are Known. 
the Weelly Milk Sheet. 
J. McGuiRE 



// is for Those 



PER WEEK GIVEN IN THE COLUMNS BELOW WHEN HER TEST 



Is 

.1 

er 


Is 
4.2 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.18 
1.70 
2.35 
2.94 
3.53 
4.12 
4.70 
6.29 
6.88 
6.47 
7.06 
7.64 
8.23 
8.82 
9.41 
10.00 
10.58 
11.17 
11.76 
12.35 
12.94 
13.52 
14.11 
14.70 
15.29 
15.88 
16.46 
17.05 
17.64 


Is 
4.3 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.20 
1.81 
2.41 
3.07 
3.61 
4.21 
4.82 
5.42 
6.02 
6.62 
7.22 
7.83 
8.43 
9.03 
9.63 
10.23 
10.84 
11.44 
12.04 
12.64 
13.2^ 
13.85 
14.45 
15.05 
15.65 
16.25 
16.86 
17.46 
18.06 


Is 
4.4 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.23 
1.85 
2.40 
3.08 
3.70 
4.31 
4.93 
5.54 
6.16 
6.78 
7.39 
8.01 
8.62 
9.24 
9.86 
10.47 
11.09 
11.70 
12.32 
12.94 
13.55 
14.17 
14.78 
15.40 
16.02 
16.63 
17.25 
17.80 
18.48 


Is 
4.5 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.26 
1.89 
2.52 
3.15 
3.78 
4.41 
5.04 
5.67 
6.30 
6.93 
7.56 
8.19 
8.82 
9.45 
10.08 
10.71 
11.34 
11.97 
12.60 
13.23 
13.86 
14.49 
15.12 
15.75 
16.38 
17.01 
17.64 
18.27 
18.90 


Is 
4.6 
per 
cent 


Is 
4.7 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.32 
1.97 
2.63 
3.29 
3.95 
4.61 
5.26 
5.92 
6.58 
7.24 
7.90 
8.55 
9.21 
9.87 
10.53 
11.19 
11.84 
12.50 
13.16 
13.82 
14.48 
15.13 
15.79 
16.45 
17.11 
17.77 
18.42 
19.08 
19.74 


Is 

4.8 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.34 

2.02 

2.69 

3.36 

4.03 

4.70 

6.38 

6.05 

6.72 

7.39 

8.06 

8.74 

9.41 

10.08 

10.75 

11.42 

12.10 

12.77 

13.44 

14.11 

14.78 

15.46 

16.13 

16.80 

17.47 

18.14 

18.82 

19.49 

20.16 


Is 
4.9 
per 
cent 


Is 
5.0 
per 
cent 


Is 

5.1 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.43 

2.14 

2.86 

3.57 

4.28 

5.00 

5.72 

6.43 

7.14 

7.85 

8.57 

9.28 

10,00 

10.71 

11.42 

12.14 

12.85 

13.57 

14.28 

14.99 

15.71 

16.42 

17.14 

17.85 

18.56 

19.28 

19.99 

20.71 

21.42 


Is 
5.2 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.46 

2.18 

2.91 

3.64 

4.37 

5.10 

5.82 

6.55 

7.28 

8.01 

8.74 

9.46 

10.19 

10.92 

11.65 

12.38 

13.10 

13.83 

14.56 

15.29 

16.02 

16.74 

17.47 

18.20 

18.93 

19.66 

20.38 

21.11 

21.84 


Is 
5.3 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.48 
2.23 
2.97 
3.71 
4.45 
5.19 
6.94 
6.68 
7.42 
8.16 
8.90 
9.65 
10.39 
11.13 
11.87 
12.61 
13.36 
14.10 
14.84 
15.58 
16.32 
17.07 
17.81 
18.55 
19.29 
20.03 
20.78 
21.52 
22.26 


Is 
5.4 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.51 
2.27 
3.02 
3.78 
4.54 
5.29 
6.05 
6.80 
7.56 
8.32 
9.07 
9.83 
10. .58 
11.34 
12.10 
12.84 
13.61 
14.37 
15.12 
15.88 
16.63 
17.39 
18.14 
18.90 
19.66 
20.41 
21.17 
21.92 
22.68 


Is 
5.6 
per 
cent 

Lbs. 

1.54 

2.31 

3.08 

3.85 

4.62 

6.39 

6.16 

6.93 

7.70 

8.47 

9.24 

10.01 

10.78 

11.55 

12.32 

13.09 

13.86 

14.63 

15.40 

16.17 

16.94 

17.71 

18.48 

19.25 

20.02 

20.79 

21.56 

22.33 

23.10 


Is 
6.6 
per 
cent 


.bs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

1.40 

2.10 

2.80 

3.50 

4.20 

4.90 

5.60 

6.30 

7.00 

7.70 

8.40 

9.10 

9.80 

10.50 

11.20 

11.90 

12.60 

13.30 

14.00 

14.70 

15.40 

16.10 

16.80 

17.50 

18.20 

18.90 

19.60 

20.30 

21.00 


Lbs. 


.15 
.72 
i.30 

!.87 
5.44 
1.02 
1.59 
).17 
5.74 
).31 
5.89 
r.46 
5.04 
?.61 
J.18 
3.76 
133 
5.91 
1.48 
2.05 
2.63 
3.20 
3.78 
4.35 
4.92 
5.50 
5.07 
B.65 
7.22 


1.29 

1.93 

2.58 

3.22 

3.86 

4.51 

5.15 

5.80 

6.44 

7.08 

7.73 

8.37 

9.02 

9.66 

10.30 

10.95 

11.59 

12.24 

12.88 

13.52 

14.17 

14.81 

15.46 

16.10 

16.74 

17.39 

18.03 

18.68 

19.32 


1.37 
2.06 
2.74 
3.43 
4.12 
4.S0 
5.49 
6.17 
6.86 
7.55 
8.23 
8.92 
9.60 
10.29 
10.98 
11.66 
12.35 
13.03 
13.72 
14.41 
15.09 
15.78 
16.46 
17.15 
17.84 
18.52 
19.21 
19.89 
20.58 


1.57 

2.35 

3.14 

3.92 

4.70 

5.49 

6.27 

7.06 

7.84 

8.62 

9.41 

10.19 

10.98 

11.76 

12.64 

13.33 

14.11 

14.90 

15.68 

16.46 

17.25 

18.03 

18.82 

19.60 

20.38 

21.17 

21.96 

22.74 

23.52 



lATE Milk and Butter Fat Produced by a Cow. 

amount of milk and butter fat which a cow will produce in a week. It is 
has not the time to add up the milk sheet. It is a table that is simple 
minutes, it can be understood easily. 

^ve at a milking. If you have a cow which gives about an average of ten 
3n pounds" is reached. The number just opposite in the second column of 
the cow produces in one week is shown in the other columns of the table, 
cow's milk may test. The numbers in the column below the per cent of 
of butter fat given by any cow in one week is measured by the figures in 
I at a milking — the first column. 

ekly milk sheet, and determine the average amount of milk given at a 
pounds, a comparison with the estimate table will indicate that she will 
of her week's milking. Then glance across the table to the column which 
aumber in the 4 per cent column opposite the 10 pounds in the first column 
n a similar way, the amount of butter fat secured can be ascertained for 



APPENDIX 



425 



Madam Consumer: 

Are you doing your part? 

In case of trouble with the milk, locate the fault 
near home if possible, that you may more surely 
and quickly remedy it. 

• Protect the milk when received. 





I" BOARDS 
3' PLANER 
SHAVINGS 
SAWDUST OR 
EXCELSIOR 



The MILK UPON DELIVERY TO BE SET INTO THIS FIRE-LESS 
COOKER LIKE BOX . It WILL RETARD WARMING IN SUMMER 

AND FREEZING IN WINTER. 

II. Cool the milk to 50° or below. 

I. Set BOTTLE INTO PAIL. 

ICE "!) 2. Add A CHUNK OF ice . 

3. Fill the pail with water. 

WATER . 4. Set pail and all INTO THE 

ice chest. 
5. Milk cared for thus will 

KEEP sweet twice AS LONG 
as it WILL IF MERELY SET 
INTO THE REFRIGERATOR. 



The DAIRYMAN IS REQUIRED 
BY LAW TO COOL THE MILK 
FOR YOU. Do AS MUCH FOR 
YOURSELF I 




. Return bottles clean. 



CLEAN 



L Wash bottles before the milk dries 

ON them. 
C. DONT USE MILK BOTTLES IN SICK ROOM. 

3. DoNT PUT gasoline ETC. IN BOTTLES. 

4. Return bottles promptly and clean. 

5. Help your dairyman protect your 
family. 

your bottles your NEIGHBORS KNOW YOU. 

UNIV. OF MINN. 



Fig. 131. — Chart used in milk campaigns. 



INDEX 



Abortion, 194 

Abundance of feed, value of, 226 

Acid, sulphuric, 327 

care of, 328 

errors to avoid. 328 

kind, 327 

strength, 327 

strength in percentage. 331 
Acid test for cream, 363 
Acres required per cow, 165 
Actino-niycosis, 209 
Adulteration of milk, 389 
Advanced registry, 95 

Ayrshire, 95 

Brown .Swiss, 112 

Dutch Belted, 126 

French-Canadian, 128 

Guernsey. 69 

Holstein-Friesian, 55 

Jersev. 85 

Red Polls. 101 

Shorthorn, 120 
Appendix, 415 
Ayrshire, 90 

Babcock test, 303 
Balanced farming, 19 
Balanced rations, 230 
Barn plans, 179 

Body growth effected by food, 407 
Breeding table, 155 
Breeding associations, 143 
milk records for, 147 
selection of cow, 144 
three day records, 145 
Breeds of cattle, the, 43 
Ayrshires, 90 

adaptations, 90 
advanced registry, 95 
body characteristics, 91 
dairy characteristics, 94 
home conditions, 91 
importation to America, 91 
origin, 90 
score card, 96 
Brown Swiss, 108 
adaptations, 114 
advanced registry, 112 
body characteristics, 109 



Breeds of cattle. Brown Swiss, dairy 
characteristics, 112 
home conditions, 108 
importation to America, 110 
origin, 108 

registry of production, 112 
scoi-e card, 114 

Dutch Belted, 123 

advanced registry. 126 
body characteristics, 124 
dairy characteristics, 126 
importation to America, 123 
origin, 123 
records, 126 

French-Canadian, 127 

advanced registry, 128 
body characteristics, 127 
dairy characteristics, 12S 
M-igin, 127 
record of performance, 128 

Guernsey, 62 

adaptations, 69 
advanced registry, 69 
body characteristics, 67 
dairy characteristics, 68 
home conditions, 64 
introduction to America, 6o 
origin, 62 
score card, 71 

Holstein-Friesian, 46 
adaptations, 51 
advanced registry, 55 
beef characteristics, 50 
body characteristics, 47 
breed's future, the, 57 
dairy characteristics, 48 
foreign distribution, 51 
home conditions, 46 
introduction to America, 50 
score card, 58 

Jersey, 74 

adaptations, 83 
advanced registry, 85 
American vs. Island type, 

80 
beef characteristics, 82' 
body characteristics, 77 
constitution, 82 
dairy characteristics, 78 

427 



428 



INDEX 



Breeds of cattle, Jersey, lioiiie cou- 
ditions, 74 
improvement from within, 

75 
improvements needed, 83 
introduction to America, 79 
Island type, 80 
origin, 74 

plan of registration, 76 
register of merit, 85 
score card, 86 

Eed Polls, 100 

advanced registry, 101 
body characteristics, 100 
dairy characteristics, 101 
home conditions, 100 
introduction to America, 

100 
official milk records, 103 
origin, 100 
score card, 103 

Shorthorn, 117 

advanced registry, 120 
lx)dy characteristics, 118 
dairy characteristics, 118 
importation to America, 

118 
origin, 117 

record of merit list, 120 
Breeds, origin of, 27 

a cross, 29 

a grade, 29 

common stock, 29 

elements of dairy type, 31 

present day breeds, 28 

pure breeds, value of, 28 
Brown Swiss, the, 108 
Butter, commercial grades of, 358 
Butter making, see Dairy butter 

making 
Calves, dairy, raising 

age to breed, 262 

age to separate, 261 

blood meal, 258 

lione meal, 259 

bull dairy development, 263 

calf meals, 256 

calf scours. 217, 257 

calves suckling, 260 

cost of raising, 263 

dehorning with caustic, 260 

eggs for calves, 258 

fall vs. spring, 249 

feeding, 250 

general rule for feeding, 250 



Calves, grain for calves, 253 

hay for calves, 254 

importance of raising, 249 

iniluence of early feeding, 261 

nature's way, 248 

order of feeding, 255 

pasture for, 255, 263 

raising calves without milk, 255 

removing from mother, 250 

rest, 259 

scours, calf, 217, 257 

skim milk, 253 

sucking, 260 

veal calves, 248 

water for, 259 

whey for, 257 

white scours, 217, 257 
Calving time, 225 
Care of cream on the farm, 340 

cleanliness, value of, 340 
' cream ripening, 342 

delivery, 341 
Cattle 

early use, 23 

evolution, 25 
Centrifuge, the, 325 

care of, 326 

speed of, 326 

temperature of, 326 
Certified milk, production of, 278 

standards for, 278 
Change of routine, 175 
Chapped teats, 215 
Cheese, 367 

cottage, 372 

farm dairy, 367 
Child labor, 16 
Clarified milk, 393 
Clean milk production, 267 

barn, the, 269 

certified milk, 267 

cooling, 272 

flies, 270 

milkers, the, 267 

pails, the, 208 

shipping, 273 

stools, the, 268 

strainers, the, 269 

water, 272 
Comiuon ailments, 189 

actino-mycosis, 209 
distribution, 209 
location, 210 
treatment, 210 

bloating, 215 



INDEX 



429 



Common ailments, bloating, causes, 
216 
symptoms, 216 
treatment, 216 
chapped teats, 215 
cow pox, 213 
ergotism, 207 

foot and month disease, 204 
causes of, 205 
diagnosis, 206 
prevention of. 208 
symptoms, 205 
foot i-ot, 208 
garget, 213 

infectioiis abortion, 194 
cause of, 194 
manner of dissemination, 

195 
mode of infection, 196 
prevention and treatment, 

198 
symptoms, 196 
inflammation of udder (mam- 
mitis), 211 
symptoms, 211 
treatment, 212 
lumpv jaw, 209 
milk 'fever, 200 
cause of, 200 
prevention of, 203 
symptoms of, 200 
treatment for, 203 
ring worm, 220 
scours, white, 217, 257 
cause of, 217 
prevention, 189 
teats, cha])ped, 215 
tuberculosis, 189 

bacilli found in milk, 189 
cause of, 189 

communicable to men, 189 
method of distribution, 192 
nature of, 189 
symptoms, 190 
tuberculin test for, 192 
warts, 215 
Community breeding, 141 
advantages, 143 
associations, 143 
disadvantages, 144 
Composition of feeds, 417 
Composition of milk and its prod- 
• nets, 412 
Cottage cheese, 372" 
Cow as a food producer, the, 3 



Cow vs. steer in food production, 4 

Cream, care and ripening, 340 
grading, 341 
ripening, 342 

Cream separation, 332 

variation in cream test, 333 
variation in skim milk test, 334 
weight of cream per gallon, 339 

Cream separators, 332 
centrifugal. 332 
efficiency in skimming, 333 
speed effect on fat loss, 333 

Dairy barn, features of, 179 

cork bricks, 179 

creosote blocks, 180 

dimensions of stalls, 187 

facing of cows, 181-182 

floor material, 179 

hay storage, 179 

light, 186 

manger, 188 

ventilation, 182 
Dairy butter making, 346 

acid test. 363 

butter, composition of, 357 

butter, market classes of, 358 

butter, overrun, 356 

causes of diilicult churning, 356 

churn, the, 347 

collection of cream, 346 

coloring, 348 

composition of butter, 357 

fat test, 363 

making, the, 348 

market classes of butter, 358 

moisture test, 365 

salt test, 3()5 

selling, 355 

tests in creameries, 363 
Dairy herd management. 153 

acres required per cow, 165 

breeding, 162 

care after calving, 160 

change of routine, 175 

cow's bed, 170 

dehorning, 170 

dog, the, 176 

drought efl'ect on milk, 164 

drying oflf cow, 158 

first vs. last milk. 168 

first year's record, 162 

flies, protecting against, 166 

food efl'ect on test of milk, 163 



430 



INDEX 



Dairy herd management, fountain, 
private drinking, 173 

gestation period, 154 

getting most from cows, 177 

giving the cow a rest, 157 

hard milkers, 172 

kicking cows, 171 

large vs. small pasture, 104 

leaking teats, 172 

light, 186 

manure an index to feeding, 159 

milk fever, 101 

milking before calving, 159 

milking machine, 109 

milking methods, 167 

muslin curtain, 186 

naming the cows, 172 

number times to milk, 162 

pasture, large -vs. small, 164 

pasture, supplementing, 166 

period of greatest yield, 162 

preparing for record, 158 

j)rivate drinking fountan, 173 

protecting against Hies, 166 

putting onto fall basis, 157 

routine, ciiange of, 175 

salt requirement, 174 

short pasture, 165 

sucking cows, 171 

temperature, 186 

time to freshen, 154 

turning onto pasture, efi'ect of, 
Kil 

ventilation, 182 

watering, 173 
Dairying, the why of, 3 
Dairy score card, 275 
Dairy testing associations, 148 

number of, 150 

result of, 149 
Dairy type, elements of. 31 

capacity for food, 31 

constitution, 34 

dairy temperament, 33 

femininity, 30 

food, capacity for, 31 

mammary development, 36 

temperament, dairy, 33 

triple wedge, 36 

type essential to economy, 42 
Dehorning, 

calves, 260 

cows, 170 
Difficult churning in winter, 356 
Drought effect on milk, 164 



Drying off the cow, 158 
Dutch Belted, the, 123 

Early use of cattle, 23 

Farm dairying, 291 
Farm milk house, 293 

construction, 299 

ice house, 300 

location, 298 

requirements, 293 
Fat globules, size, 408 
Fat yield, estimated, 424 
Feeding in winter, see Winter feeding 
Feeding standard, 232 
Fertilizing value of plants. 8 
Flies, protecting against, 10(i 
Foot and mouth disease, 204 
Foundation stock, 138 
French-Canadian, the, 127 

Garget, 213 

General rule for feeding, 239 

Gestation table, 155 

Glassware 

cleaning. 329 

testing, 413 
Goats, milch, 131 

breeds, 133 

dairy type in goats, 132 

goats, maligned, the, 131 

milk composition, 136 

milk records, 134 
Ciouda cheese, 307 
Guernsey, the, 62 

Haecker's feeding standard, 232 
Herd management, see Dairy herd 

management 
High-priced lands, 19 
Holstein-Friesian, the. 46 
Homogenized milk, 397 
Human food production, 3 

Ice cream, 375 
Ice house, 300 
Income, 

direct, 17 

indirect, 17 

regular, 16 
Infants, milk for, 405 

Jersey, the, 74 

Lactometer, the, 389, 390 
Lumpy jaw, 209 



INDEX 



431 



Maintenance ration, 229 
Management of the herd, 153 
Manure, 10-13 

amount produced, 10 

composition of, 11 

value of, 10 

value per ton. 12 

value per year, 13 
Market milk, 38:3 

adulteration, 389 

certified milk, 493 

standards for, 278 

clarifying milk, 393 

classes of market milk, 393 

factors influencing quality of, 
384 

homogenized milk, 397 

milk for infants, 405 

New York grades, 274 

pasteurized milk, 395 

sanitary milk, 396 

score card for dairies, 275 

score card for milk, 386 

standardized milk, 394 
Marketing butter, 355 
Methods of selling milk, 399 
ililk and cream testing, 303 

buttermilk, testing, 324 

calculating the fat, 312 

cheese, testing, 325 

composite samples, 317 

equipment and cost, 303 

making the test, 305 

operation, 305 

preservatives, 315 

reading the test, 
crram, 321 
milk, 311 

sampling, 305, 314, 316 

skim milk testing, 323 

sour milk testing, 316 

test, true average, 321 

testing cream, 317 

testing frozen milk, 316 

testing whey, 324 

weighing cream, 317 

whey test, 324 
Milk, composition of, 412 

adulteration of, 389 

city standards for milk, 414 

composition of milk and its 
products, 412 

cost compared, 405 

food composition efl'eet on body 
growth, 407 



Milk, food value of, 401 

government standards of pur- 
ity, 409 

methods of selling milk, 399 

milk for adults, 401 

milk for infants, 405 

total solids, 392 
Milk fever, 200 
Milk house, 293 
Milk score card, 386 
Milking machines, 169 
Moisture test, 365 

New York milk grades, 274 
Nutrients, net, required, 232 

Order of feeding 

calves, 255 

cows, 244 
Over-run in butter, 356 

Palatability, value of, 227 
Pasteurized milk, 395 

Records, feeding for, 241 
Records, see Advanced registry 
Red Polls, the, 100 
Regulation of labor, 18 
Ringworm, 220 
Ripening cream, 342 
Rochester score card, 276 
Roots for cows, 243 

Salt requirement, 174 
Salt test, the, 365 
Sanitary milk, 396 
Sanitary milk pails, 269 
Score card for 

Ayrshire, the, 96 

Brown Swiss, the, 114 

dairies, 276 

Guernsey, the, 71 

Holstein-Friesian, the, 58 

Jersey, the, 87 

milk and cream, 386 

Red Polls, the, 103 
Scours in calves, 217, 257 
Secretaries of breed associations, 45 
Selling market milk, methods, 399 
Selling milk, forms of, 359 
Separators, cream, 332 
Short pasture, 165 
Shorthorn, the, 117 
Silo, the, 244 

advantages of, 244 



432 



INDEX 



Silo, kinds, 245 

(Sire, selection of, 139 

Skim milk for calves, 255 

Standardizing milk and cream, 336 

Standards for milk 

cities, 414 

government, 409 
Starting a dairy herd, 138 

daily records, 145 

foundation stock, 138 

ideal pedigree, 141 

quality breeding, 141 

selection of dam, 144 

selection of sire, 139 
Succulence, 227 

Teetli, silage eii'ect on, 247 

Test of milk afi'ected by feeding, 

1G3 
Testing associations, 148 
Testing milk and cream, 303 
Tests in butter making, 363 
Tuberculosis, 189 
Turning to pasture, effect on milk, 

164 

Utilization of waste forage, 4 



Variations in cream tests, causes, 

333 
Veal calves, 248 

Warts on cows' teats, 215 

Watering, 173 

Weed seeds in manure, 247 
in silo, 249 

Weight of cream per gallon, 339 

Whey for calves, 257 

Winter feeding, 225 

abundance of feed, value of, 226 
adjusting the ration, 231 
balance of luitrients, 228 
calving time, 215 
feeding standard, 232 
general rule, a, 239 
heavy yield, feeding, 240 
maintenance ration, 229 
order of feeding, 244 
palatability, 227 
ration for milk production, 230 
records, feeding for, 240 
silage effect on milk, 245 
silo 

advantages, 244 
kinds, 245 
succulence in feed, 227 



mim§mM&M 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

QDDDaTSnHT 



